HGAP SEM 1 EXAMMMM
Unit 1: Thinking Geographically
Maps
Reference Maps: Show geographic locations and features like boundaries, cities, and physical landscapes (e.g., road maps, topographic maps). Focus on accuracy of places.
Thematic Maps: Focus on specific data (e.g., population density, climate, economic activities) with patterns or themes.
Distortion: Map projections distort one or more spatial properties—shape, area, distance, or direction. For example, the Mercator projection distorts area near the poles, making Greenland look much larger.
Mercator Projection: Preserves direction, making it good for navigation, but distorts size and area, especially near the poles.
GIS (Geographic Information System): Computer-based tool for mapping and analyzing spatial data. Used for urban planning, disaster management, and environmental studies.
GPS (Global Positioning System): Satellite-based system used for precise location and navigation.
Site & Situation
Site: The physical characteristics of a place (e.g., climate, soil, water sources).
Situation: The location of a place relative to other places (e.g., a city near a river or trade route).
Possibilism vs. Environmental Determinism
Environmental Determinism: Argues that the environment determines human activity and societal development (now largely discredited).
Possibilism: Suggests that while the environment offers limitations, humans have the ability to adapt and innovate.
Regions
Formal Region: Defined by uniform characteristics (e.g., the Sahara Desert).
Functional Region: Organized around a central node or function (e.g., a metropolitan area like New York City).
Perceptual/Vernacular Region: Based on people's perceptions (e.g., "The South" in the U.S.).
Scale
Refers to the level of detail or scope of geographic analysis.
Local: Neighborhood or city-level analysis.
Regional: Broader areas like states or countries.
Global: Examines worldwide processes or trends.
Unit 2: Population and Migration Patterns
Population Pyramids
Graphs showing age and sex distribution in a population.
Expanding pyramids suggest high birth rates, while contracting pyramids suggest aging populations.
Fertility
Refers to the number of children born, measured by Total Fertility Rate (TFR)—average number of children a woman is expected to have.
Demographic Transition Model (DTM)
Explains population change through five stages:
High birth/death rates (pre-industrial).
Death rates drop (improvements in health/sanitation).
Birth rates decline (industrialization).
Low birth/death rates (developed economies).
Possible population decline (aging populations).
Epidemiologic Transition Model (ETM)
Tracks causes of death across the DTM stages:
Pestilence and famine.
Receding pandemics.
Degenerative diseases.
Delayed degenerative diseases.
Re-emergence of infectious diseases.
Boserup vs. Malthus
Malthus: Predicted population growth would outstrip food supply, leading to famine and societal collapse.
Boserup: Argued that innovation and technology would increase food production to meet population demands.
Migration
Push Factors: Negative conditions that drive people to leave (e.g., war, famine, persecution).
Pull Factors: Positive attractions of a new location (e.g., jobs, safety).
Ravenstein’s Laws of Migration: General principles including:
Most migrants travel short distances.
Long-distance migrants move to urban areas.
Economic factors are the main driver.
Unit 3: Cultural Patterns and Processes
Diffusion
Relocation Diffusion: Spread of ideas or traits via migration.
Expansion Diffusion: Spread through a population in various ways:
Contagious: Rapid, widespread diffusion (e.g., viral videos).
Hierarchical: Spreads through a specific hierarchy or network (e.g., fashion trends).
Cultural Landscape
The visible imprint of human activity on the landscape, reflecting cultural practices (e.g., architecture, land use, religious sites).
Language
Major Families: Indo-European (e.g., English, Hindi), Sino-Tibetan (e.g., Mandarin), Afro-Asiatic (e.g., Arabic).
Lingua Franca: A common language used for trade and communication (e.g., English globally).
Pidgin: Simplified language combining elements of multiple languages for basic communication.
Creole: A stable, fully-developed language from mixing languages (e.g., Haitian Creole).
Religion
Universalizing Religions: Seek to appeal to all people (e.g., Christianity, Islam, Buddhism).
Ethnic Religions: Tied to specific ethnic groups (e.g., Hinduism, Judaism).
Syncretism: Blending of beliefs and practices (e.g., Santería, Sikhism).
Centripetal vs. Centrifugal Forces
Centripetal: Unite a country (e.g., shared language, national pride).
Centrifugal: Divide a country (e.g., ethnic conflict, political disputes).
Assimilation, Acculturation, Ethnocentrism
Assimilation: Absorbing into a dominant culture.
Acculturation: Adopting cultural traits while retaining one’s own.
Ethnocentrism: Belief in the superiority of one’s own culture.
Unit 4: Political Geography
Sovereignty
The ability of a state to govern itself without external interference.
Self-Determination
The right of a group to govern themselves (e.g., independence movements).
Borders/Boundaries
Types:
Physical: Natural features (e.g., rivers, mountains).
Cultural: Defined by cultural traits (e.g., language, religion).
Types of States
Compact: Small, circular (e.g., Poland).
Prorupted: Extended arm (e.g., Thailand).
Fragmented: Broken into pieces (e.g., Indonesia).
Elongated: Long and narrow (e.g., Chile).
Law of the Seas
Establishes maritime boundaries:
EEZ (Exclusive Economic Zone): Coastal states control resources within 200 nautical miles.
Devolution and Balkanization
Devolution: Transfer of power from central to regional governments.
Balkanization: Fragmentation of a state into smaller, hostile regions (e.g., Yugoslavia).
Unitary vs. Federalism
Unitary: Centralized government (e.g., France).
Federalism: Power shared between central and local governments (e.g., U.S.).
Colonialism and Imperialism
Colonialism: Establishing settlements to exploit resources.
Imperialism: Extending political or economic power over territories.
Redistricting
Redrawing electoral district boundaries, often controversial due to gerrymandering.
Supranational Organizations
Alliances of multiple states for economic, political, or military goals (e.g., UN, NATO, EU).
The manipulation of voting district boundaries to favor a particular political party, group, or election outcome is called gerrymandering (Figure 29.3). Gerrymandering can be accomplished by one of two methods (Figure 29.4). One method, known as packing, draws district boundaries so as to concentrate all the opposition party into one district, thereby creating an unnecessarily large majority while also ensuring that it cannot win elsewhere. The second method, known as cracking, draws the boundaries so as to divide opposition votes into many districts, thus diluting the opposition’s vote so that it does not form a majority in any district. In both cases votes are “wasted,” either because they are well beyond the number needed to win (packing) or because the boundaries have already established that there are not enough votes in the district to win (cracking)
A nation is a community of people bound to a homeland and possessing a common identity based on shared culturaltraits such as language, ethnicity, and religion. In the United States, individual Native American groups are considered nations, such as the Navajo Nation, Cherokee Nation, and Zuni Pueblo. In the United Kingdom, the Cornish people in the southwest of England, with a rich Celtic heritage, are a recognized ethnic minority. They are currently a part of “England and Wales,” but some Cornish people advocate for the Cornish nation to be an independent Cornwall. In Finland, the Sami are recognized as a nation of indigenous people that have the right to maintain and develop their own language and culture. Political geographers identify the nation-state as the ideal political geographical unit, one in which the nation’s geographic boundaries (a people and its culture) exactly match the state’s territorial boundaries (governance and authority).