Columbus notes

Emerging interactions between the Old World, the Christian world, India, and the New World transformed global history.
Primary objective of early transoceanic voyages: Locate new maritime trade routes to Asia to access high-value commercial goods, such as Chinese silk, due to Asia's immense wealth at the time.
Maritime background of Christopher Columbus:
- Born in Genoa, Italy.
- Sailed under the commission of King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain.
- In $1501$ , Columbus wrote a letter to King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella justifying his qualifications, stating he began sailing at an early age and had navigated all waters known to Europeans.
- Extent of prior voyages claimed by Columbus: Extended as far north as Iceland, as well as regions across North Africa and West Africa.

Territorial competition between Spain and Portugal:
- Both Iberian kingdoms had reclaimed their lands from Muslim rule and subsequently engaged in intense rivalry over territorial claims in the Americas.
- Pope Alexander VI intervened in the rivalry by issuing a papal edict that favored Spanish claims.
- Historiographical context of papal bias: Pope Alexander VI possessed strong personal and political ties to Spain, influencing his decree.
Treaty of Tordesillas:
- Established a formal territorial division between the two nations.
- Granted present-day Brazil to Portugal.
- Granted Spain claim over virtually all other remaining regions in the Americas.

Critical evaluation of terminology:
- Discovery: Rejected by modern historians because the Americas were already fully inhabited by indigenous populations.
- Encounter: Preferred by many mainstream historians to describe the initial meeting between European explorers and indigenous societies previously unknown to them.
- Invasion: Utilized by critical historians to reflect the coercive, violent, and conquering nature of European actions over time.
Analytical significance: Choice of vocabulary carries profound historical implications, framing how historical events and power dynamics are understood.

Scope of Columbus's expeditions:
- Completed a total of $4$ separate voyages across the Atlantic.
- Expanded exploration beyond Caribbean islands to include Central America and northern regions of South America.
Fleet details:
- Ships comprised three vessels: the Santa Maria, the Pinta, and the Niña.
- Columbus's fleet was modest in size and scale compared to the massive treasure fleet commanded by Zheng He.
Primary source evidence:
- Columbus maintained detailed personal journals documenting his voyages, serving as a primary historical record for modern analysis.

Initial encounters:
- Columbus and his crew first stumbled upon the Taino people in The Bahamas.
- Subsequent contact was made with the Caribs.
Evidence from journal writings:
- Columbus explicitly documented the practice of kidnapping indigenous individuals.
- Described the Taino and Caribs as ideal prospective servants.
- Documented indigenous physical traits, assessing them as prime labor specimens.
Long-term consequences:
- European contact brought devastating, catastrophic long-term effects upon both the Taino and Carib populations.

Disgrace and death in the early $1500$ s:
- Columbus was not revered during his lifetime or at the time of his death in the early $1500$ s.
- Died in disgrace, primarily due to his brutal treatment of indigenous populations (Taino and Caribs) and poor administration, drawing disfavor from the Spanish crown and contemporaries.
19th-Century romanticization and myth-making:
- By the $19$ th century, public perception underwent a major shift, re-imagining Columbus as a heroic figure.
- Commemorative art and monuments arose during this period:
- The painting Landing of Columbus was created in $1846$ .
- A colossal statue of Columbus was erected in Barcelona in $1888$ for the World's Fair.
- Historical context of the $1888$ Barcelona monument: By the late $19$ th century, the Spanish Empire had severely dwindled from its former extent; constructing monuments to Columbus served as a nostalgic attempt