Comprehensive Notes on Theories of Motivation

Definition: Motivation is a need or desire that serves to energize behavior.
Behavior is guided by both physiological and psychological needs/desires.
Motivation is inferred from observed behaviors, including non-verbal communication.

Instinct: A complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned.
Common in other species (e.g., imprinting in birds, salmon return).
Early sociologists attempted to name human instincts but struggled to explain them.
Instinct and motivation can be linked, with instincts potentially driving certain behaviors.

Drive: A type of motivation experienced as an aroused state of psychological/physiological tension caused by some need.
Drives motivate us to take action.
The body aims to eliminate all drives to achieve homeostasis, a balanced or constant internal state.
Drive Reduction Theory: Physiological needs create tension states (drives) that motivate an organism to satisfy the need.
Example: Thirst (physiological need) creates a tension state (drive) that motivates you to get water. After drinking, the drive is reduced, moving you closer to homeostasis.

Incentives: Positive or negative ENVIRONMENTAL (external) stimuli that motivate behavior apart from the need to reduce drives.
Example: Money.
The sequence: Need → Drive → Drive-reducing behaviors.
Stronger drive when there is both a need and an incentive.

Based on two basic ideas:
- Individuals perform tasks at different levels of arousal (wakefulness/stress).
- Each individual seeks to find its optimal level of arousal to perform tasks and avoid boredom.
Motivation to maintain arousal.
Arousal: A state of physiological and psychological alertness, ranging from calm to highly stimulated.
Optimal arousal: The psychological state where mental stimulation is at a level that maximizes performance, learning, and well-being; being "in the zone".
Individuals with high optimal arousal levels may seek thrill-seeking activities, while those with low levels may prefer relaxing, quiet activities.
Yerkes-Dodson Principle of Arousal: Basic/general tasks are completed best with a moderate level of arousal. (graph forms an inverted-U).
The relationship between task type and arousal:
- Difficult tasks are best performed with low arousal.
- Easy tasks are best performed with high arousal.

Self-Determination: A person's ability to make choices and manage their own life.
Explores how self-determination impacts motivation; people are more motivated when they believe their actions will affect the outcome.
Involves the need for growth or to gain fulfillment.
- Intrinsic Motivation: The drive to engage in activities because they are inherently interesting or enjoyable, stemming from internal desires like personal satisfaction or curiosity.
- Extrinsic Motivation: The drive to perform and succeed for the sake of obtaining a separate outcome, such as external rewards like money, praise, or recognition.
Intrinsic motivation has more positive results than extrinsic motivation, according to studies.
Extrinsic and intrinsic motivation can work together.
- Example: A college student working to pay for their education is extrinsically motivated to earn money but intrinsically motivated to receive a college education.

External motivation can decrease over time.
If the incentive disappears, will the behavior continue?
- Example: Ice cream after piano lessons stopped, and so did the lessons.
Removing the extrinsic motivator may result in lower motivation levels than before the reward existed.
Overjustification Effect: Being offered an external reward for doing something we enjoy diminishes our intrinsic motivation to perform that action.
- Example: Losing interest in hobbies when monetized.
Possible explanations:
- People pay more attention to external rewards than their enjoyment of the activity.
- External reinforcement is viewed as a coercive force.
The Self-Determination Continuum:
- Amotivation: Nonintentional, nonvaluing, incompetence, lack of control; impersonal source of motivation.
  - Non-Regulation regulates the motivation.
- Extrinsic Motivation:
  - External Regulation: Compliance, external rewards and punishments; external source of motivation.
  - Introjected Regulation: Self-control, ego-involvement, internal rewards and punishments; somewhat external source.
  - Identified Regulation: Personal importance, conscious valuing; somewhat internal source.
- Intrinsic Motivation:
  - Integrated Regulation: Congruence, awareness, synthesis with self; internal source.
  - Intrinsic Regulation: Interest, enjoyment, inherent satisfaction; internal source.

The drive to succeed and excel, encompassing the desire to overcome obstacles, master difficult challenges, and achieve high standards.
Example: A study tracking children into adulthood found top violinists had significantly more practice hours by their early 20s compared to those aiming to be teachers.
High Achievement Motivation = more discipline, willingness, and persistence.

Which theory of motivation best explains your behaviors today? Support your arguments with two examples:
1. Instinct
2. Drive Reduction
3. Incentive
4. Optimal Arousal