Psychology Test Revision

è Memory is the faculty by which the brain encodes, stores and retrieves information.

è 3 basic processes that must take place for memory to be formed on a relatively permanent basis.

è Encoding is the process of translating raw sensory information into a format your brain understands.

è Storage is the process of keeping the information in memory for a period of time so that we can use it. If information is encoded properly, then it will be stored.

è Retrieval is the process of accessing previously stored information when you need it. Is aided by effective storage, as well as using cues or hint from the environment to access the information that you want.

è Recall: accessing information without cues.

è Recognition: identifying previously learned information after encountering it again, usually in response to a cue.

è Relearning: learning information that was previously learned.

The Atkinson – Shiffrin Multi – store Model of Memory:

è Describes three stores of memory that are separate but function simultaneously to create our ability to encode, store and retrieve information.

è Environment input, or information from our surroundings, enters through our sensory memory or sensory register. The short-term memory then processes and stores this input. In our short-term memory information is rehearsed and can then be stored more permanently in our long-term memory to retrieve later on.

è Sensory memory relates to memory within our sense organs. It is where information in our environment is received by our sense. If the info is unique, different, interesting, relevant or in some other way attracts our attention, then it is transferred to short – term memory.

è Sensory memory à has an unlimited capacity but only a very brief duration (different from short- and long-term memory)

è Two types: Iconic (visual) memory and echoic (auditory) memory.

è Iconic memory: receives visual sensory info from the eyes and holds a very short visual image of what you have just seen. The capacity is very large and is only limited by the vision of the individual. The duration (how long its stored for) is very short, around 0.3 seconds. This allows ‘smooth’ perception rather than blurred moving objects or static images.

è Echoic memory: this is the sensory memory stored for sound info. The capacity is very large and is only limited by how well you can hear. The duration of echoic memory is about 3 – 4 seconds; any shorter and you would not have enough time to understand someone speaking to you. You need to be able to remember what was said at the start of their sentence to understand the end.

è Short term Memory: Also referred to as ‘working memory’, STM allows us to manipulate info that has come in through sensory memory, as well as info that is stored in long – term memory. Anything that you are thinking about at a given moment is happening and being worked on in you STM.

è STM has a limited capacity as well as a limited duration. Because of this, info that is in you STM is very susceptible to interruption and interference.

è Your STM can hold an average of 7 + or – 2 pieces of information at any one time. This means that you can’t hold more than 9 pieces of information (on average) in your STM.

è You can increase the amount you can hold in your STM by using a method called chunking. This is when you group individual bits of info into groups, or chunks.

è The length of time that you can hold info in STM for is between 18 and 30 seconds. If you do not transfer this information into long – term memory in this time, it will be lost from memory.

è Increasing the duration of STM:

è Rehearsing info à prevents from being lost or displaced. The longer the info is in STM, the greater the probability that it will be transferred into storage in LTM.

è Maintenance rehearsal à relies on constant recitation of info in a rote way. Easily affected by distraction, which can displace information from STM.

è In contrast, elaborative rehearsal involves expanding (or elaborating) the new information by adding to it or linking it to what you already know, thereby making it more meaningful.

è LTM is a potentially permanent memory store that has an infinite capacity for storing info for an extensive period of term.

è LTM stores all the info that we don’t need right now. Because this info is not immediately active, it needs to be retrieved back into STM when we need to use it.

è Procedural Memory: this is a type of LTM that involves thought processes and skills about how to perform certain tasks, and it allows you to complete a course of action (e.g. tying shoelaces/writing name). Procedural memory is knowing how.

è Declarative Memory: This is a type of LTM of specific facts or events that you know about the world and yourself and can draw on in order to communicate to others (things that you can declare). Essentially, declarative memory is knowing that.

è Episodic Memory: This is a type of declarative memory for autobiographical information – personal events and experiences from your own life and the context in which they occurred. This is something like recalling the day and place of an event like your 16^th birthday.

è Semantic Memory: this is a type of declarative memory that involved specialised knowledge of factual information about the world. This could be general knowledge, things learned in school or the meaning of words. This is something like knowing that Athens is the capital of Greece, and that there are 5 Olympic rings.

ü Attention interacts with memory in several ways. Attention has a powerful influence over what we perceive and thus necessarily influences what can be encoded (stored) into memory.

ü Selective attention is the ability to select certain stimuli in the environment to process while ignoring distracting information.

ü Consider selective attention as a “filter”. We constantly act on incoming information – we let some in for further processing and keep some out.

ü Divided attention – when we purposely distribute our attention to more than one thing at one time. However, our capacity to attend to different activities at once are limited.

è It comes from Baddeley’s realisation that memory was in fact more complicated than the Multi Store Model made out, in particular the role of Short-Term Memory.

è Baddeley proposes Working Memory as something that carries out the functions of STM and some of the work of LTM as well.

è Instead of all info going into one single store, there are different systems for different types of information.

è Central Executive: responsible for monitoring and coordinating the operation of the slave systems. Relates to LTM.

è Cognitive tasks à mental arithmetic & problem solving.

è Decides which info is attended to and which parts of the working memory send that info to be dealt with.

è Acts like system à controls attentional process rather than memory store.

è Phonological loop: deals w/ spoken & written material.

è Phonological store à holds info in speech-based form. Articulatory process à allows us to repeat verbal info in a loop.

è Phonological store à process speech perception & stores spoken words we hear for 1 – 2 seconds.

è Articulatory control process (linked to speech production) acts like an inner voice rehearsing info from the phonological store.

è The articulatory control process also converts written material into an articulatory code and transfer it to the phonological store.

è Visuospatial sketch pad à deals with visual and spatial info. Visual info à what things look like. It is likely that the visuospatial sketchpad plays an important role in helping us keep track of where we are in relation to other objects as we move through our environment. Displays and manipulates visual and spatial info held in long-term memory.

è Episodic Buffer à added in 2000. Proposed as a limited capacity storage system responsible for integrating info from several sources to create a unified memory, sometimes referred to as a single ‘episode’. The Episodic buffer does this by “binding” info from the various systems of working memory and relevant activated long-term semantic and linguistic knowledge, into a coherent whole.

è Aim = main goal or overarching purpose of research project. Brief and to the point. State purpose.

è Research Question = present a study’s aims in the form of questions that will be answered by the research.

è Research Hypothesis: predictions of a relationship between two or more variables. Data collected to see if hypothesis is supported.

Example: Higher consumption of alcohol will be associated with more incidents of partner violence.

è Directional Hypothesis: must predict that one of the conditions will show more or less of something than the other condition.

è Nondirectional Hypothesis only has to predict there will be a difference in scores between two groups, not which group will do the best.

è Qualitative Research Questions: lived experience, personal experience, understanding, meaning and stories.

è Quantitative Research Questions: more general, less specific. Instead of asking how one concept causes another, we are asking about how people understand or feel about a concept.

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è Independent variable: what we systematically change to see the effect on the dependent variable.

è Dependent variable: observe and measure the effects of the independent variable.

è Control Variables: a variable that influences the response measure but does not have a particular interest for the researcher. Kept constant to stop its effects on results.

è Extraneous Variable: unwanted factors that could negatively affect the data subsequently collected.

è Drawing conclusions in research refers to the interpretation of the data that has been collected.

è Involves making inferences, forming judgements and making decisions.

è Conclusions should reflect the research questions and objectives.

è Summarise findings

è Interpret results: must be based on research question and the results of your analysis.

è Formulate explanations

è Memories aren’t stored in just one part of the brain. Different types are stored across different, interconnected brain regions.

è Hippocampus: Organises and stores new declarative memories (facts and events). It strengthens these memories by connecting them with sensations and emotions through its links to other brain regions.

è A landmark 1953 case study of patient HM demonstrated this role. After having portions of his medial temporal lobes (including the hippocampus) removed to treat epilepsy. HM maintained his existing cognitive functions but lost the ability to form new memories – a condition known as anterograde amnesia.

è Rather than permanently storing memories, the hippocampus acts a processing centre that prepares memories for long – term storage elsewhere in the brain.

è Cerebellum: plays a large role in implicit memories (procedural memory, motor learning, and classical conditioning.

è It seems that the cerebellum regulates the speed, consistency, and appropriateness of mental process just as it regulates the rate, rhythm, force and accuracy of movements.

è Amygdala: important structure for the creation and recall of both explicit and implicit memory. Main job à regulate emotions, such as fear and amygdala.

è Plays a part in how memories are stored as information storage is influenced by emotions and stress. This is particularly important because strong emotional memories are difficult to forget.

è Theres an additional aspect to the amygdala’s involvement in memory. The amygdala doesn’t just modify the strength and emotional content of memories; it also plays a key role in forming new memories specifically related to fear. Fearful memories can be formed after only a few repetitions.

Reception: specific stimulus of sufficient intensity is detected by receptor.

Transduction: Once receptor has detected the stimulus, the receptor generates an action potential (nerve impulse).

Transmission: If stimulus is greater than or equal to threshold, then the action potential (nerve impulse) travels along the neuron (nerve) to the appropriate part of the brain.

Reception is the process where sensory receptors in your body (like in your ears) detect a specific stimulus. For sound, receptors in your ears respond to sound waves of sufficient intensity. If the sound is too faint, the receptors won’t detect it.

After the receptors in your ears detect the sound, they transduce (convert) the sound waves into an electrical signal called an action potential. This happens only if the sound is intense enough to trigger a response.

Once the action potential is generated, it travels along neurons to the auditory cortex in your brain, where the sound is processed and interpreted

Definition reminder: Perception refers to the way sensory information is organised, interpreted, and consciously experienced.

How we interpret sensory information affects how we interact with the world.

Bottom-up processing refers to the fact that perceptions are built from sensory input.

The way we interpret those sensations is influenced by out available knowledge, our experiences, and our thoughts. This is called top-down processing.

Selection: •Process for determining which stimulus gets our attention. In selection, your brain filters the sensory information it receives and focuses on what’s most important or relevant. Without this filtering, you’d be overwhelmed by stimuli!

Often done subconsciously.

•Relates to salience - how important something is to us.

•Often our needs drive perception - selecting stimuli that match/meet our need/s

•Attention to stimuli that meet our expectations or violate them.

Organisation: Sorting and categorising information we perceive based on innate and learned cognitive patterns. In organisation, your brain arranges the sensory information into a meaningful pattern. It groups related elements together based on principles like similarity, proximity, and closure.

•Proximity: closeness used to categorise things close together.

•Similarity: Classify things that look/act similar belong together.

•Difference: Something that is different to the group doesn’t belong to the group.

Interpretation:•A more deliberate and conscious step in perception. In interpretation, your brain gives meaning to the organised information based on your past experiences, expectations, and context.

•Assigning meaning to our experiences - retrieving schemata, comparing new information, relating and then modification if needed.