CORRELATION: identifies relationships between two variables.
EXPERIMENTS: manipulates variables to determine cause/effect.
NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION: observes people in their natural settings.
CASE STUDY: studies one person (usually) in great detail.
META-ANALYSIS: combines multiple studies to increase sample size and examine effect sizes.
Basic Vocabulary
Hypothesis: a tentative explanation that must be falsifiable (able to be supported or rejected).
Operational Definition: a clear, precise, quantifiable definition of variables, allowing replication and reliable data collection.
Qualitative Data: descriptive data (e.g., eye color).
Quantitative Data: numerical data, ideal and necessary for statistics.
Population: everyone the research could apply to.
Sample: the people (or person) specifically chosen for the study.
Research Designs
Advantages: Useful when experiments are unethical.
Disadvantages: Correlation does not equal causation.
Directionality Problem: Which direction does the correlation go? (e.g., does depression cause low self-esteem, or does low self-esteem cause depression, or is there a third variable?).
Third Variable Problem: A different variable is responsible for the relationship (e.g., ice cream sales and murder rates).
Negative Correlation: As one variable increases, the other decreases.
The stronger the #, the stronger the relationship REGARDLESS of the pos/neg sign. Cannot be < or > than 1.
Stronger relationships = tighter clusters on graph.
Experiments
Advantages: Only type that establishes cause and effect.
Disadvantages: Can be unethical, too artificial.
Independent Variable: Purposefully altered by the researcher to look for an effect.
Experimental Group: Receives the treatment (part of the IV); can have multiple experimental groups.
Control Group: Placebo, baseline (part of the IV); can only have one.
Dependent Variable: Measured variable, dependent on the independent variable.
Vocab Unique to Experiments
Placebo Effect: Any observed effect on behavior that is "caused" by the placebo (shows the effectiveness of experimental treatment). Usually fixed with blinded studies.
Double-Blind: Experiment where neither the participant nor the experimenter knows which condition people are assigned to (e.g., drug studies).
Single-Blind: Only the participant is blind – used if the experimenter can't be blind (e.g., gender, age).
Confound: Error/flaw in the study that is accidentally introduced (can be called a confounding variable).
Random Assignment: Assigns participants to either control or experimental group at random – increases the chance of equal representation among groups (spreads the lefties across both groups) – allows you to say Cause / Effect.
Naturalistic Observation
Advantages: Real-world validity.
Disadvantages: No cause and effect.
Case Study
Advantages: Collects lots of info.
Disadvantages: No cause/effect.
Statistics
Descriptive Stats: Show the shape of the data.
Measures of Central Tendency:
Mean: Average (use in normal distribution).
Median: Middle # (use in skewed distribution).
Mode: Occurs most often.
Bimodal: Has two modes – usually indicates good/bad scores.
Skews: Created by outliers.
Negative Skew: Mean is to the left (negative side), mode is to the right.
Positive Skew: Mean is to the right.
Measure of Variation:
Range: Distance between the smallest and biggest #.
Standard Deviation: Average amount the scores are spread from the mean (bigger # = more spread).
Myelin Sheath: Speeds up AP down the axon, protects axon.
Synapse: Gap between neurons.
Sensory Neurons: Receive sense signals from the environment – send a signal to the brain.
Motor Neurons: Signals to move – send signals from brain.
Interneurons: Cells in the spinal cord/brain responsible for the reflex arc
Reflex arc – important stimuli skips the brain and routes through the spinal cord for immediate reactions (hand on a hot flame).
Glia: Support cells – give nutrients and clean up around neurons.
Neurons Fire with an Action Potential: Ions move across the membrane sends an electrical charge down the axon.
Resting Potential: Neuron maintains a -70mv charge when not doing anything.
Depolarization: Charge of the neuron briefly switches from negative to positive – triggers the AP.
Threshold of Depolarization: Stimulus strength must reach this point to start the AP.
All or Nothing Principle: Stimulus must trigger the AP past its threshold, but does not increase the intensity or speed of the response (flush the toilet).
Refractory Period: Neuron must rest and reset before it can send another AP (toilet resets).
Neurotransmitters (NT)
Chemicals released in synaptic gap, received by neurons, classified as excitatory (increase APs in other neurons) or inhibitory (decrease APs).
GABA: Major inhibitory NT.
Glutamate: Major excitatory NT.
Dopamine: Reward (short term) & fine movement – in hypothalamus, associated with addiction.
Serotonin: Moods (long-term), emotion, sleep – in amygdala, too little associated with depression.
Acetylcholine (ACh): Memory and movement – in the hippocampus, associated with Alzheimer’s.
Norepinephrine: Sympathetic NS - too little associated with depression.
Endorphins: Decrease pain.
Substance P: Pain regulation (abnormality increases pain and inflammation).
Hormones
If not in the nervous system, it’s a hormone.
Oxytocin: Love, bonding, childbirth, lactation.
Adrenaline: Fight/flight.
Leptin: Makes you full (stops hunger).
Ghrelin: Makes you hungry (turns you into a gremlin).
Melatonin: Sleep.
Drugs
Agonist: Drug that mimics a NT.
Antagonist: Drug that blocks a NT.
Reuptake: Unused NTs are taken back up into the sending neuron (antidepressants cause reuptake inhibition (block reuptake) – treatment for depression).
Corpus Callosum: bundle of nerves that connects the 2 hemispheres – sometimes severed in patients with severe seizures – leads to “split-brain patients”.
Split-brain experiments:
Image shown to R eye processed in L hemi – patient can say what they saw; image shown to L eye processed in R hemi, can’t say what was seen.
Brain Plasticity: Brain changes via damage and through experience.
Endocrine System: Sends hormones throughout the body.
Pituitary Gland: Controlled by hypothalamus, releases growth hormones.
Brain Research:
EEG: Shows broad brain activity – not specific – electrical output.
fMRI: Shows brain activity in specific regions, measures oxygen.
Myasthenia Gravis: Acetylcholine blocked, disrupts APs, causes poor motor control and paralysis.
Blindsight: Caused by lesions to primary visual cortex, ppl can “see” ie catch a ball etc despite being blind – evidence for association areas.
Prosopagnosia: Face blindness – damage to occipital and/or temporal lobe.
Broca’s Aphasia: Damage to Broca’s area – stuttered speech.
Wernicke’s Aphasia: Damage to Wernicke’s – jumbled speech.
Phantom Limb Pain: Pain from a limb that no longer is there (amputated) – caused by brain plasticity.
Epilepsy: Seizures – too much/little Glutamate/GABA.
Alzheimer’s: Destruction of acetylcholine in the hippocampus, memory loss.
Sleep
Consciousness: Awareness of cognitive processes (asleep or awake?).
Circadian Rhythms: 24-hour biological clock of Body temp & sleep.
Disrupting it makes your internal clock get out of sync (jet lag and shift work do this).
Beta Waves: Awake (you better be awake for the exam).
Alpha Waves: High amp., drowsy.
NREM (non-REM) Stages:
NREM 1: Light sleep, has hypnagogic sensations (falling feeling).
NREM 2: Bursts of sleep spindles.
NREM 3 Delta Waves: Deep sleep.
Rapid Eye Movement (REM): Dreaming, cognitive processing.
Entire cycle takes 90 minutes; REM occurs in between each cycle. REM lasts longer throughout the night; deep sleep decreases.
REM is "paradoxical" because your HR and brain are active – but your body is relaxed.
REM Rebound: After sleep disruptions and/or lack of REM sleep you’ll have more/more intense REM sleep.
Dream Theories:
Activation Synthesis: The brain produces random bursts of energy – stimulating lodged memories in limbic system & brain stem. Dreams start random then develop meaning. Its Neural theory.
Consolidation Dream Theory: The brain combines and processes memories for storage.
Why is Sleep Necessary?
Consolidation– storage of memories.
Restoration– helps regenerate the immune system and restore energy.
Sleep Disorders
Insomnia: Inability to fall/stay asleep (due to stress/anxiety).
Somnambulism (Sleep Walking): Happens during stage 3 - NOT during REM.
Narcolepsy: Fall into REM out of nowhere – treated with stimulants.
Sleep Apnea: Stop breathing while asleep (due to obesity usually).
REM Behavior Disorder: Malfunction of the mechanism that paralyzes you during REM.
Sensation
Intro Vocab
Sensation: Receive stimulus energy from the environment.
Transduction: Convert that info into APs.
Perception: The brain interprets the info.
Absolute Threshold: Detection of the signal 50% of the time (is it there).
Just Noticeable Difference: Can tell the difference between a stronger and weaker stimulus or two similar things (coke vs. Pepsi, did it get stronger?).
WEBER’S LAW: two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum proportion.(the stronger thing, the more you have to add to tell the difference).
Synesthesia: "Disorder" where your senses blend (see sounds, etc.).
Sensory Adaptation: Diminished sensitivity as a result of constant stimulation (ex. nose blindness)– sensory receptors respond less (get tired).
Rods: Black/white, dark adaptation; way more rods than cones; located along sides of the retina.
Cones: Color, bright light (red, green, blue) (only in the fovea).
Ganglion Cells: Create optic nerve (opponent process theory happens here).
Blind Spot: Occurs where the optic nerve leaves the eye.
Visual System Vocab:
Accommodation: Lens changes curvature to focus images on the retina.
Nearsightedness: Better vision near.
Farsightedness: Better vision far.
Theories of Color Vision
Trichromatic: Three cones for receiving color.
* Blue – short waves.
* Green – medium waves.
* Red – long waves.
Opponent Process: Complementary colors are processed in ganglion cells – explains why we see an afterimage.
* Red/green.
* Blue/yellow.
* Black/white.
Color Deficiency:
* Damage to, or missing - cones or ganglion cells.
* Red/green is most common.
* Dichromatism – missing 1 cone.
* Monochromatism – only have rods.
Auditory System
Properties of Sound
* Wavelength – distance bw peaks - pitch.
* Long waves = low pitch.
* Narrow waves = high pitch.
* Amplitude – height of wave – loudness.
* Short waves = soft.
* Tall waves = loud.
Theories of Hearing: all occur in the cochlea.
* Place theory – location where hair cells bends determines sound (high pitches).
* Frequency theory – rate at which action potentials are sent determines sound (low pitches).
* Volley theory – groups of neurons fire APs out of sync.
Other Hearing Stuff:
* Sound localization – which ear gets the waves first tells location of sound.
* Conduction deafness – damage to bones of ear and ear drum cause hearing loss.
* Sensorineural – damage to cochlea, hairs in cochlea, or nerve – usually due to old age and loud noise.
Other Senses
Vestibular: The sense of balance (semicircular canals in the inner ear).
Kinesthetic: Sense of body position & movement without looking.
Pain: Gate-control theory: we have a “gate” to control how much pain is experienced. Pain is both mental and physical.
Hot: Activation of warm and cold receptors.
Taste (Gustation): 6 taste receptors: bitter, salty, sweet, sour, umami (savory), oleogustus (fatty/oily).
* Tongue, mouth, and brain process taste.
* Density of taste receptors makes ppl super tasters, medium tasters, or nontasters.
* Sensory interaction creates taste – without smell taste isn’t as strong or is absent.
Smell (Olfaction): Only sense that does NOT route through the thalamus.
* Pheromones produce chemical signals within a species for attraction.
Perception
Top-Down Processing: Whole idea (prior expectations) -> smaller parts (painting w/ faces).
Bottom-Up Processing: Smaller Parts (sensory info) -> Whole idea (dog of a bunch of dots).
Schemas: Preexisting mental concept of how something should look (like a restaurant).
Perceptual Set: The tendency to see something as part of a group – speeds up signal processing.
Gestalt Psychology: Whole is greater than the sum of its parts.
Gestalt Principles
Figure/ground: organize information into figures objects (figures) that stand apart from surrounds (back ground).
Closure: mentally fill in gaps.
Proximity: group things together that appear near each other.
Similarity: group things together based off of looks.
Constancies: recognize that objects do not physically change despite changes in sensory input (size, shape, brightness).
Apparent Movement: objects can appear moving when they aren’t (flip books, blinking lights).
Selective attention: focus on one thing and block out other things –.
Can result in:
Inattentional Blindness: failure to notice something added b/c you’re so focused on another task (gorilla video).
Change Blindness: fail to notice a change in the scene (curtain changes color).
Cocktail party effect: notice your name across the room when its spoken when you weren’t previously paying attention.
BINOCULAR DEPTH CUES: (how both eyes make up a 3D image).
Retinal Disparity: Image is cast slightly different on each retina, location of image helps us determine depth.
Convergence: Eyes strain more (looking inward) as objects draw nearer.
MONOCULAR DEPTH CUES (how we form a 3D image from a 2D image).
Interposition: overlapping images appear closer.
Relative Size: 2 objects that are usually similar in size, the smaller one is further away.
Linear Perspective: parallel lines converge with distance (think railroad tracks).
Relative Clarity: hazy objects appear further away.
Texture Gradient: coarser objects=closer.
Thinking & Problem Solving
Concepts: Mental categories used to group objects, events, and characteristics.
Prototypes: All instances of a concept are compared to an ideal example.
Algorithms: Step-by-step strategies that guarantee a solution (formula).
Heuristics: Short-cut strategy
* Representative Heuristic: make judgment based on your experience (like a stereotype) – assume someone must be a librarian b/c they’re quiet.
* Availability heuristic: make a judgement based on the first thing that pops in your head (assume planes are dangerous b/c crash in the news).
Metacognition: thinking about (reflecting upon) the way you think.
Mental Set - keep using one strategy to solve a problem – cannot think outside the box.
Functional Fixedness: can only see one (common) use for an item– cannot think outside of the box.
Sunk Cost fallacy – continue something bc you’re already invested (might as well finish it now…) – when stopping would be more beneficial.
Gambler’s Fallacy – believe something is more likely to happen bc its “due” – the dice have no memory.
Divergent thinking: ability to think about many different things at once (Creative) – hindered by func. fixedness.
Convergent thinking: limits creativity – one answer.
Executive functioning: generating, organizing, planning, carrying out goal directed behvs.
Memory
Encoding: Getting info into memory.
Automatic encoding – requires no effort (what did you have for breakfast?).
Effortful encoding – requires work (school).
Levels (depth) of Processing: the more emphasis on MEANING the deeper the processing, and the better remembered.
Structural encoding (shallow) – emphasis on physical structural.
Phonemic encoding (intermediate) – emphasis on what words sound like.
Semantic encoding (deep) = emphasis on the meaning of the words.
Elaborative Rehearsal – strategies to enhance encoding like below:
* Imagery – attaching images to information makes it easier to remember.
* Dual encoding – using multiple methods of processing to remember (photo + words).
* Chunking – break info into smaller units to aid in memory (like a phone #).
* Mnemonics – shortcuts to help us remember info easier:
* Acronyms – using letter to remember something (PEMDAS).
* Method of loci – using locations to remember a list of items in order.
Context dependent memory – where you learn the info you best remember the info (scuba divers testing).
State dependent memory – the physical state you were in when learning is the way you should be when testing (study high, test high).
Mood congruent memory – remember happy events when happy, sad when sad.
Forgetting curve: recall decreases rapidly at first, then reaches a plateau after which little more is forgotten.
Distributed practice (spacing effect) – review a little every night (resets forgetting curve ).
Massed practice – cramming.
Testing effect – quizzing over material periodically.
Storage: Retaining info over time:
Multi-Store Model – Sensory memory, short term memory, long term memory model.
Sensory Memory – stores all incoming stimuli that you receive (first you have to a pay attention).
Short Term Memory – info passes from sensory memory to STM – lasts 30 secs, and can remember 7 ± 2 items.
Maintenance Rehearsal (repeating the info) resets the clock.
Long term memory – lasts a life time.
Explicit – require conscious effort:
Episodic: events.
Semantic: facts.
Implicit- automatic, no effort needed:
Classical conditioning.
Priming: info that is seen earlier “primes” you to remember something later on.
Procedural: skills (muscle memory).
Working Memory Model splits STM into 2 – visual spatial memory (from iconic mem) and phonological loop (from echoic mem). A “central executive” puts it together before passing it to LTM.
Other odd types of memory.
Prospective memory – remembering you need to do something (pick up milk).
Autobiographical memory: memory for your personal history – combo of episodic and semantic.
Superior autobiographical – rare condition – ppl have extra detailed memories.
Memory organization
Hierarchies: memory is stored according to a clusters of related info.
Categorically – stored in categories
Semantic networks: webs of semi-related info.
Tip of the tongue phenomenon – can’t remember the name of something bs you’re stuck elsewhere in your semantic network.
Schemas –frameworks that organize info.
Assimilation: incorporate new info into existing schema Cat is a dog b/c 4 legs.
Accommodation: adjust existing schemas to incorporate new information Cat and dogs = different.
Memory storage.
Acetylcholine neurons in the hippocampus for episodic and semantic.
Memories before age 3 are unreliable (infantile amnesia) – the hippocampus is still forming.
Cerebellum for implicit/procedural memories.
Amygdala for emotional memories.
Frontal lobe for encoding and retrieval.
Long-term potentiation: neural basis of memory – connections are strengthened over time with repeated stimulation (more firing of neurons).
Memory consolidation – memories are strengthened and made more stable with time.
Retrieval: Taking info out of storage.
Serial Position Effect: Tendency to remember the beginning (primacy effect) and the end (recency effect) of the list best.
Primacy happens because the info got moved to long-term memory.
Recency because it's still in your short term.
Recall: Remember what you’ve been told without cues (essays).
Recognition: Remember what you’ve been told with cues (MCQ) (this one is better).
Repressed memories: unconsciously buried memories to defend the ego (psychodynamic approach).
Encoding failure: forget info b/c you never encoded it (paid attention to it) in the first place (which is the real penny).
Proactive interference OLD info blocks new info.
Retroactive interference NEW info blocks old info.
Constructive memory – the way we update memories w/ new memories, associations, feelings – memory is unreliable.
Source Amnesia: forget who told you, where you heard it.
Misinformation effect: distortion of memory by suggestion or misinformation (lost in the mall, Disney land).
Framing – the way a question is framed impacts how info is recalled / perceived (how fast were the cars going when they smashed).
Imagination Inflation: ppl are more confident an event happened after imagining it (even though it didn’t happen).
Anterograde amnesia: amnesia moves forward (forget new info – 50 first dates).
Retrograde amnesia: amnesia moves backwards (forget old info).
Development and Learning Pillar
Intelligence & Achievement
Intelligence theories are split:
Single form of intelligence (g factor) - general intelligence (g) underlies all mental abilities (typical IQ tests of today). If you’re smart in one area you’re smart in other areas too.
Multiple intelligences – intelligence has lots of types, not just math/language. Can be high/low in areas.
First IQ Test: used a formula and is where the traditional value of “IQ” comes from
Chronological age = actual age
Mental age = tested age compared to other of that age
Use for IQ: \frac{Mental Age}{Chronological Age} * 100
100 is average, SD = 15
Use for IQ scores /tests today: educational services, diagnostic testing for learning disabilities, GT identification
Psychometrics – field of psych & education for creating tests
Standardization: test is given using consistent procedures and environments, and graded the same (SAT, AP exams)
Tests Should be reliable: same results over time (consistent)
Split-half reliability: compare two halves of the test
Test-retest reliability: use the same test on 2 different occasions
Tests Should be valid: test is accurate – measures what it is intended to
Construct validity: test measures what you want it to (an IQ test actually measures IQ)
Predictive validity: test is able to accurately predict a trait (high math scores predicts good engineer)
Standardized tests establish a normal distribution
Standard dev are used to compare scores. Standard deviation measures how much the scores vary from the mean. Percentages below NEVER change.
~68% w/in one SD. ~95% w/in 2 SD. ~99% w/in 3 SD.
Types of Tests:
Aptitude: predicts your abilities to learn a new skill (ASVAB)
Achievement: tests what you know(AP)
Historical Issues with Intelligence Testing
Nature vs Nurture Influence on IQ:
Genetics: MZ twins have similar IQ, adopted kids more similar to biological parents
Environment: early neglect leads to lower IQ, good schooling to higher IQ
Personal and sociocultural biases impact interpretation of results
Poverty and education inequalities neg. impact scores
Eugenics – study of how to “improve” the gene pool by discouraging (sterilizing or otherwise) individuals from reproducing
Culture fair tests – IQ tests have been used to refuse / limit access to jobs, military, education, and immigration
Need to focus on non-language skills & minimize cultural specific questions
Stereotype threat: feel at risk of conforming to the neg. stereotype about your group - influences your behaviors, cognitions
Stereotype lift – do better on a test when comparing self to other groups w/ neg stereotypes
FLYNN effect: IQ has steadily risen over the past 80 years – probably due to education standards, healthcare
Fixed Mindset: belief intelligence is fixed from birth – leads to less effort
Growth mindset: belief you can develop abilities through work and determination – leads to more effort
Development
“3 thematic issues” in Dev. Psych:
Nature / Nurture (genes or environment)
Continuous / Discontinuous (gradual dev over time or dev. In stage)
Stability / Change (traits persist, unchanging or traits change as we age)
CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDY: ppl of different ages at the same point in time