Technological Advancements: The years following World War II saw significant technological progress, including:
Jet engines replacing propellers.
Supersonic flight (Mach 1) leading to hypersonic flight (Mach 2+).
Envisioning Space Travel
Langley's Vision: Engineers at the Langley Memorial Aeronautics Laboratory imagined creating aircraft capable of escaping Earth's gravity and reaching outer space.
The Advent of Electronic Calculators
Early Adoption: In 1947, Langley purchased its first electronic calculator from Bell Telephone Laboratories.
Human Computers vs. Machines:
The "female computers" were distinct from the large, room-sized calculating machines, though they performed similar functions.
Dorothy Vaughan foresaw the eventual replacement of human computers by these machines.
Increasing Complexity of Calculations
Need for Advanced Technology: Electronic calculators became essential due to the complex research being conducted by the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA).
Supersonic Flight Math: The mathematics required to study supersonic flights became increasingly complicated as planes flew faster than the speed of sound.
Equation Complexity: Algebraic equations could have as many as 35 variables and take up to a month to solve manually.
*New Electronic Calculators speed: could complete in a few hours.
Old Electronic Calculators used paper punch tapes. Data Input/Output.
Speed: two seconds per math operation.
*Physical Impact: The whole building shook when the machine was in use
Electronic Calculators could operate all night long. Human female computers needed to rest.
The Introduction of IBM Computers
Mid-1950s Purchases: NACA bought its first computers from IBM:
IBM 604 electronic calculating punch.
IBM 650.
Purpose: These machines were needed to calculate the flight path for a hypersonic rocket plane (Mach 5+), an experimental aircraft designed to leave Earth's atmosphere and reach space.
Initial Reliability Issues: The data processing machines were initially prone to errors, requiring monitoring by engineers and human computers.
Cost: In the 1950s, these electronic computers cost over a million dollars and were only used by large research facilities.
Processing Limitations: They could process only one job at a time, leading to fierce competition for computing time.
Shortsightedness : Only the most shortsighted of the human computers failed to see that the electronic computers were going to dominate the future.
Evolution and Obsolescence
Scientific Progress as Evolution: Evolution occurs in scientific progress, with positive traits continuing and obsolete ones dying off.
Example: Propeller Research: Propeller research was once a primary focus at Langley, but it became obsolete and was replaced by jet engines.
By 1951, the propeller tunnel was demolished, and its staff had to find new specialties or retire.
The Future of Human Computers
Adapt or Become Obsolete: Human computers faced the same challenge: evolve or become obsolete.
Dorothy Vaughan's Foresight: Dorothy Vaughan realized that mastering the electronic calculators was crucial for job security.
Computer Programming Classes: Langley started offering computer programming classes after work and on weekends, which Dorothy and other women attended.
Integration and Opportunity
Competition: Dorothy expected more direct competition with white computers and knew that African American women needed to exceed standards.
Integration: Dorothy believed that the blurring of color lines could lead to desirable jobs for those skilled in managing electronic computers.
Training: She emphasized the importance of taking advantage of every opportunity for additional training.
Educational Opportunities
Available Classes:
After-work lectures on aerodynamics at Langley.
Classes at Hampton Institute.
Langley Air Force Base.
The College of William and Mary.
Newport News High School.
Hampton High School:
Served as the seat of the University of Virginia's Extension School (one of Langley's campuses).
Langley's top researchers taught classes to laboratory employees at the city's only public high school.
Segregation: The high school was off-limits to African American children, who attended Pennix High School on the campus of Hampton Institute.
School Segregation and the Cold War
National Debate: School segregation became a significant topic across the country.
Focus on Math and Science: Politicians and citizens debated the quality of schools, especially in comparison to Soviet schools, with an emphasis on math and science.
Cold War Impact: The goal of raising technical proficiency intensified due to the Cold War.
African American Participation: The debate expanded to include the participation of African Americans in technical fields.
Wasted Potential: Questions were raised about why the brainpower of black children was being wasted by sending them to inferior schools.
Proving Capabilities
Demonstrated Abilities: Katherine Goble, Dorothy Vaughan, Mary Jackson, and other Langley computers proved that women were as good at math as men, and African Americans were just as gifted at math as anyone else.
Mary Jackson's Journey
New Role in Wind Tunnel Research: Mary Jackson's math skills were put to good use in her new job in the wind tunnel research section.
Mentor: Her boss, Kaz Kazarnicki, showed her how to operate the wind tunnel.
Research Focus: The research in her division was used to design missiles for the U.S. government.
Co-authored Report: Her work culminated in the 1958 report "Effects of Nose Angle and Mach Number on Transition on Cones at Supersonic Speeds."
Mentorship: Mary's boss was impressed with her work and encouraged her to enroll in Langley's engineer training program.
No Barriers: Mary's boss and her mentor, didn't care what background anyone was, only about their skill.
Overcoming Gender and Racial Barriers
Limited Female Engineers: At the time, there were very few white women working as engineers.
Classification of Women: Most of Langley's female professionals, black and white, were classified as computers or mathematicians.
Challenges for Women in Engineering:
Most top engineering schools did not accept women.
Kitty O'Brian Joyner had to sue the University of Virginia to enroll in engineering school in 1939.
Rarity of African American Engineers: There were very few African American men working as engineers.
Mary's Path: Mary was on her way to becoming the first female African American engineer at Langley.
Educational Obstacles
Math Courses: Mary's boss promised her a promotion upon successful completion of advanced math courses.
High School Access: The obstacle Mary encountered was the segregation of the local high school.
Permission Required: She had to petition the city of Hampton for special permission to attend classes at the Whites-only school.
Swallowing Pride: Mary swallowed her pride and asked for permission, which was granted.
Hampton High School Experience
Familiarity with the Building: Mary had passed Hampton High School many times but had never been inside.
First Night: On her first night of class in the spring of 1956, she was nervous about meeting her coworkers outside of Langley and entering the Whites-only school.
Shocking Condition: The school was dilapidated and musty, surprising Mary.
*Illogical Segregation: This was what she had been denied all these years and Mary couldn't believe it.
Realization: She realized the nonsensical nature of segregated schools.
Inefficiency: Cities maintained two separate and inefficient school systems, shortchanging both black and white students.
Courage: Being on the leading edge of the battle over integration was not easy.
Thomas Birdsong's Experiences
Friendship: Mary Jackson was friends with Thomas Birdsong, a black engineer who had come to Langley in 1952.
Sabotage: During his first experiment, a white mechanic sabotaged his work by incorrectly attaching the model.
He did not want to cause a scene or defend his right, due to his background, so he let it go.
Boss's Intervention: Birdsong's boss recognized the sabotage and reprimanded the mechanic.
Racial Issues at Langley
Racial Tensions: Black men at Langley were more likely to face racial issues than black women.
Source of Tension: The white engineers were polite, but the blue-collar mechanics, model makers, and technicians often made African Americans feel unwelcome.
Coping Mechanism: Thomas Birdsong and a friend escaped to a black-owned restaurant for lunch to avoid segregation.
Challenges: Thomas Birdsong, Mary Jackson, and other African Americans at Langley navigated race relations in their own ways.
Broader Context of the Civil Rights Movement
National Conflicts: The challenges at Langley reflected similar conflicts happening nationwide.
Civil Rights Movement: The civil rights movement was gaining strength, with African Americans fighting for their rights and freedoms.
Political Context: These rights and freedoms were for the classroom, voting booths, and halls of congress where legislative reforms were being considered.
The Cold War and Space Race
Global Tensions: Relations between the U.S. and the Soviet Union remained uneasy.
Competition: The two world powers competed for control of Earth and outer space.
Scientific Prowess: Each country wanted to demonstrate its scientific prowess and dominate the skies.
The Question: The central question was: who would get to outer space first?