Affirmation of States in Europe (16th to 18th Centuries)

1. The Map of Europe

In modern times, Europe was divided into numerous states, most of which were monarchies. Some states were republics with collective power, but the dominant political regime was the monarchy.
- A monarchy is a political regime in which the state is governed by a monarch (king, prince, emperor). Their power is hereditary, transmitted through succession (usually from father to son) within the same family or dynasty.
- In France, several dynasties succeeded each other from the Middle Ages to the 18th century: the Capetians, the Valois, and then the Bourbons.
- In Austria, the dominant dynasty was the Habsburgs.
- In Prussia, it was the Hohenzollerns.
- In Russia, where the emperor was called Tsar, it was the Romanovs.
- In England, the dynasties were the Tudors and then the Stuarts.
Many European monarchies were absolute monarchies, characterized by an authoritarian system.
- In this system, power belonged to a single individual who maintained power by all means, including force, with little regard for the general interest of the people. Terms like dictatorship, despotism, or tyranny can be used to describe an authoritarian system.
- This authoritarian system is opposed to democracy, where sovereignty comes from the people. Besides citizen participation through elections, a democracy is defined by respect for individual rights and freedoms (enshrined in a Constitution), separation of powers (legislative, executive, judicial), and pluralism of political parties.
In modern times, numerous wars opposed European countries, leading to significant territorial modifications.
The Europe of modern times was predominantly Christian but religiously divided between Catholics, Protestants, Orthodox, and Anglicans.
Since 1453, the Ottoman Empire (Muslim) extended and threatened European and Christian states, especially Eastern Europe and Austria in particular.

2. The Absolute Monarchy of Divine Right: France under Louis XIV

Since the end of the Middle Ages, the monarchy had continually strengthened in France through the work of successive dynasties. The peak was reached under the reign of Louis XIV (1643-1715), known as the absolute monarchy of divine right.
The king had complete authority over all aspects of the state and its inhabitants, reinforcing his power by the principle of divine right, claiming to be designated by God. He was accountable to no one but God and relied on tradition to secure his control.

a. Political Power

Louis XIV held legislative power (to make laws), executive power (to enforce laws), and judicial power (to punish those who did not respect the laws).
His father, Louis XIII, aided by his chief minister, Cardinal Richelieu, had already crushed the revolt of nobles who refused to obey him (imprisonment, razed castles, beheaded nobles).
When Louis XIV was young, Cardinal Mazarin, his chief minister, saved him from the Fronde (revolt of nobles against the king's authority).
In 1661, upon Mazarin's death, Louis XIV made decisions alone, with the role of ministers and advisors limited to counsel.
Laws were to be applied throughout the kingdom thanks to intendants and an administration composed of officials in his service.
Louis XIV chose his ministers from the bourgeoisie and neutralized the nobility at the Court of Versailles.
With a simple letter of cachet, the king could decide to imprison his opponents without trial.

b. Religious Power

The king was said to be