European Colonization and British Colonies: AP US History Notes
2.2 European colonization in North America
Migration to the Americas in the 17th century and the first half of the 18th century was influenced by the environment and had a lasting impact on it. The settlement of diverse peoples—Europeans, Native Americans, and enslaved Africans—produced a society unlike any previously seen.
Exploration by Europeans quickly followed by colonization.
Primary motivations for settling in the Americas in the 17th century:
Wealth
Spreading Christianity (missionary zeal)
Escape from persecution
Spanish Colonies
Spanish settlements developed slowly in North America due to limited mineral resources and strong opposition from American Indians.
Missionary zeal was a key motivator as Spain sought to counter the Reformation and Protestantism.
These colonies were largely populated by men and gradually included Native Americans and Africans.
Florida
Juan Ponce de Leon claimed the lands for Spain in .
After failures and resistance from American Indians, a permanent settlement at St. Augustine was established in , more than 50 years before Jamestown.
St. Augustine became the oldest European-founded city on the mainland of what became the United States.
Limited settlements due to little silver/gold, declining native populations from wars and disease, and periodic hurricanes.
New Mexico and Arizona
Spanish colonists began arriving in the region, which had been settled by American Indians for about years, starting in .
Santa Fe was established as the capital of New Mexico in .
Texas
Spanish settlements established between Florida and New Mexico; growth in the early as Spain resisted French exploration of the lower Mississippi River.
California
Russians explored from Alaska; the Spanish established a settlement at San Diego in .
By , the Franciscan order and Father Junípero Serra had established missions along the California coast.
French Colonies
Like the Spanish, the French colonizers were mainly men, though there were few French settlers.
Some came as Christian missionaries; others pursued economic reasons, notably the lucrative fur trade.
Many traders married American Indian women, who provided important support as guides, translators, and negotiators with other tribes.
The French placed great emphasis on rivers for trade and transportation.
Quebec
The first French settlement in America, located on the St. Lawrence River, was founded by Samuel de Champlain (the “Father of New France”) in .
Exploration along the Mississippi
In , Louis Jolliet and Father Jacques Marquette explored the upper Mississippi River.
In , Robert de La Salle explored the Mississippi basin, naming it Louisiana after King Louis XIV.
By , the French had moved southward along the Mississippi and established New Orleans where the river entered the Gulf of Mexico; New Orleans became a prosperous trade center.
Dutch Colonies
The Netherlands sponsored voyages of exploration in the .
Henry Hudson, an English sailor, was hired to find a northwest passage to Asia.
In , Hudson sailed up what would later be named the Hudson River, establishing Dutch claims to surrounding territory,
Including New Amsterdam on Manhattan Island and the Hudson River Valley.
The Dutch West India Company held rights to control the region for economic gain.
Dutch colonies consisted of a small number of traders who built strong trade networks with American Indians.
The Dutch tended to establish trading posts near the coast or along major rivers and were less likely to intermarry with American Indians than the French.
British Colonies
England began colonization in the early , following explorers’ earlier ventures by John Cabot.
Population pressures and economic strain in England pushed thousands of poor and landless families to seek opportunities abroad.
Joint-stock companies financed risky ventures; English settlers included a higher share of families and single women and showed more interest in farming.
English colonies tended to attract a more diverse group of settlers and developed regional differences based on topography, resources, climate, and settler backgrounds.
The 13 colonies developed along the Atlantic coast from Jamestown (Virginia) in to Georgia in .
Each colony derived its authority from a charter granting privileges from the crown, and three types of charters developed, leading to three types of colonies:
Corporate colonies (e.g., Jamestown) operated by joint-stock companies, at least initially
Royal colonies (e.g., Virginia after ) under direct rule of the king’s government
Proprietary colonies (e.g., Maryland and Pennsylvania) under owners granted charters by the king
The English valued free farmers and developed a tradition of representative government, with elections for representatives to speak for property owners and to decide taxes and other measures proposed by the crown.
English colonies attracted a diverse set of settlers, and their expansion created regional distinctions.
Jamestown (Virginia) and the rise of Virginia’s colonial system formed the backbone of early English colonization along the Atlantic coast.
2.3 The Regions of British Colonies (Overview of the regions and governance)
Jamestown
Charters: King James I chartered the Virginia Company to establish Jamestown in .
Early problems:
Location in a swamp along the James River led to outbreaks of dysentery and malaria.
Many settlers were gentlemen unaccustomed to labor or gold hunters who refused to farm.
Trade with Native Americans provided some goods, but conflicts halted trade and led to famine.
Surviving leaders and innovations:
Captain John Smith provided leadership during the first five years.
John Rolfe and his wife Pocahontas developed a tobacco variety that became Europe’s profitable crop.
Headright system:
Virginia offered 50 acres of land, the headright, to any settler or to anyone who paid passage for a settler.
This system aided many European migrants but primarily benefited landowners who sponsored indentured servants.
Labor shift:
In the first decades, White laborers were common; by the end of the 17th century, enslaved Africans became more relied upon.
Transition to a Royal Colony:
By , tobacco cultivation and disease deaths reduced population from a peak of over to about ; the Virginia Company nearly went bankrupt, and the Crown revoked its charter, taking direct control and renaming the colony Virginia.
Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay
Plymouth → founded in the region later known as New England.
Origins:
About miles north of Jamestown, the Pilgrims (Separatists) left England for Holland and then America aboard the Mayflower in .
They established Plymouth after the Mayflower voyage; fewer than half of the original passengers were Separatists; the rest were economic motives.
Early hardship and aid:
The first winter was severe; local American Indians helped survivors, leading to the Thanksgiving harvest in .
Leaders and economy:
Captain Miles Standish and Governor William Bradford led Plymouth; economy based on fish, fur, and lumber.
Massachusetts Bay Colony:
Puritans, seeking reform of the Church of England, gained a royal charter for the Massachusetts Bay Company in .
In , about Puritans led by John Winthrop established Boston.
The Great Migration: roughly Puritans left England for Massachusetts during the 1630s.
Settlements in New England were towns and family farms combining commerce and agriculture.
Maryland
Religious issues and governance:
In , King Charles I carved out Maryland from Virginia and granted control to George Calvert (Lord Baltimore) as the first proprietary colony.
The Act of Toleration (1649) granted religious freedom to all Christians but prescribed death for denying Jesus’ divinity.
Protestant revolt in the late overturned the Act of Toleration, disenfranchising Catholics.
In the 18th century, Maryland’s economy and society resembled Virginia’s but with more religious diversity among Protestant sects.
Rhode Island and Connecticut
Roger Williams (1631) argued conscience should be free from civil or church authority. He founded Providence in and started one of the first Baptist churches.
Williams secured a charter in uniting Providence and Portsmouth into Rhode Island, which allowed freedom of worship for many faiths and paid Indians for land use.
Anne Hutchinson (antinomianism) challenged Puritan authorities; banished in , she helped establish Portsmouth and later moved to Long Island where she was killed in an Indian uprising.
Connecticut:
Thomas Hooker led Puritans to Hartford in and authored the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut (), creating a representative government with elected legislature and governor chosen by the legislature.
New Haven founded in , later joining Hartford to form Connecticut in under a royal charter granting limited self-government.
New Hampshire:
The last New England colony founded; in , it separated from Massachusetts Bay and became a royal colony.
The Halfway Covenant and Restoration Colonies
Halfway Covenant: addressed declining religious conversions among the native-born generation; allowed partial church membership to maintain influence.
Restoration Colonies: established in the late during the Restoration of the monarchy under King Charles II (1660).
The Carolinas (1663)
Eight noble proprietors received a large tract between Virginia and Spanish Florida, eventually forming two royal colonies, South Carolina and North Carolina, in .
South Carolina developed large rice-growing plantations with enslaved labor by the mid-18th century; economy resembled the West Indies.
North Carolina featured fewer harbors and poorer transportation, developing smaller tobacco farms with some enslaved labor and indentured servants.
The Middle Colonies
The region between New England and Virginia: New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware.
Attributes: fertile land, diverse European immigrants, good harbors, and relatively tolerant religion.
New York
In , Charles II granted the territory between Connecticut and Delaware Bay to his brother, the Duke of York (future James II). Dutch control was replaced by English, and the colony was renamed New York.
Early governance featured taxation without representation; in , James II allowed a representative assembly.
New Jersey
In , New York’s territory was split; West Jersey and East Jersey were created in .
to attract settlers, both areas offered generous land terms, religious freedom, and assemblies; later consolidated into New Jersey as a royal colony in .
Pennsylvania, “The Holy Experiment”
William Penn received the land west of New Jersey as payment for a debt owed to his father; it became Penn’s Woods or Pennsylvania.
Penn’s model:
Frame of Government () guaranteed a representative assembly elected by landowners.
Charter of Liberties () guaranteed freedom of worship for all and unrestricted immigration.
Philadelphia on the Delaware River was planned with a grid of streets; Indians were treated fairly in land purchases.
Penn recruited settlers by offering generous terms and broad religious and political freedom; Penn’s lands included Delaware’s lower three counties, which obtained their own assembly in .
Georgia, The Last Mainland Colony
Chartered in as the thirteenth and final British colony on the mainland between Canada and the Caribbean.
It was the only colony to receive direct financial support from the government.
Goals:
Create a defensive buffer to protect South Carolina from Spanish Florida.
Provide a place to send thousands of imprisoned debtors from England.
Savannah was founded in by philanthropists led by James Oglethorpe; he served as the first governor.
Early regulations banned rum and slavery, but these restrictions were lifted as the colony faced Spanish threats and economic pressure; it later became a royal colony in .
By 1776, Georgia was the smallest of the 13 colonies that joined the Revolution.
Early Political Institutions and Foundations of Self-Government
Representative Government and Early Legislation
Britain’s difficulty enforcing distant rule contributed to early self-rule.
The Virginia House of Burgesses (1620/1619) established the first representative assembly in America, dominated by elite planters.
Mayflower Compact (1620) on the Mayflower pledged majority rule as an early form of self-government.
In New England, town meetings provided direct democracy at the local level; Massachusetts Bay allowed freemen (adult male church members) to elect the governor and the assembly.
By the mid-18th century, all colonies had some form of representative government, though voting rights were limited by property, gender, and race.
Limits to Colonial Democracy
White male property ownership generally granted voting rights; women, landless men, enslaved people, and many free Blacks were excluded.
Governors often exercised autocratic powers, reporting directly to the Crown or to proprietors.
Despite democratic elements, slavery and harsh treatment of American Indians persisted.
The Economic System: Mercantilism, Trade, and the Atlantic World
The era’s governing economic theory was mercantilism: a country’s wealth was determined by exports exceeding imports, with colonies existing to enrich the parent country.
Acts of Trade and Navigation (1650–1673) set three main rules:
Colonial trade could occur only on English or colonial-built ships, with crews from England or the colonies.
All imports to the colonies had to pass through English ports (with some perishables exempt).
Enumerated goods from the colonies could be exported to England.
Enumerated goods originally included tobacco, later expanded to a long list.
Effects of the Navigation Acts:
Positive for New England shipbuilding and Chesapeake tobacco’s English monopoly; provided military protection against French/Spanish threats.
Limited development of colonial manufacturing and restricted colonial markets for raw materials, contributing to higher prices for imports and lower prices for exports in some regions (e.g., tobacco in the 1660s).
Salutary neglect: enforcement of mercantilist laws was often lax due to the distance, internal English turmoil (1642–1763), and corruption among colonial agents.
The Dominion of New England (1686–1689): James II attempted to consolidate colonies and suppress representative assemblies; Andros governed and imposed taxes and restricted town meetings; the Glorious Revolution (1688) ended this Dominion.
By 1763, enforcement of mercantilist policies waned again, and free trade sentiments and colonial resistance persisted.
Population, Society, and Culture in the Colonies
Population Growth and Immigration
1701: approximately Europeans and Africans in the Atlantic coast colonies.
By 1775: about people.
African Americans: from about in 1701 to in 1775.
Growth factors: immigration of almost 1 million people and high birthrates among colonial families.
Immigrant groups:
Germans settled primarily west of Philadelphia (Pennsylvania Dutch country); maintained language and religious groups (Lutherans, Amish, Brethren, Mennonites); by 1775, Germans comprised about (note: approximate in text; use context: about 6 percent of population).
Scotch-Irish (Scots-Irish) from Northern Ireland; settled along frontier in western Pennsylvania, Virginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia; about (approx. 7 percent).
Other Europeans (French Huguenots, Dutch, Swedes) made up roughly (about 5 percent).
Enslaved Africans: largest group among those who came to the colonies by force; by 1775, enslaved and free African Americans made up about (roughly 20 percent of the colonial population), concentrated in the South (South Carolina and Georgia as major slave populations).
Native American population growth and conflicts with settlers occurred as expansion progressed; alliances and conflicts varied by region (e.g., Powhatan Confederacy in Virginia; Iroquois Confederation in the Great Lakes).
The Structure of Colonial Society
Shared characteristics across colonies:
Predominantly English in origin, language, and culture; diverse influences from Africans and non-English immigrants.
Liberty and opportunity: more self-determination in religion and economy than in Europe.
Religious toleration varied by colony; Rhode Island and Pennsylvania were among the most open; Massachusetts was more restrictive.
No hereditary aristocracy; a class system based on economics emerged, with wealthy landowners at the top and craftspeople/farmers lower down.
Social mobility: land ownership and economic opportunity allowed some advancement.
The family as the center of colonial life; high birth rates and large families; more than 90% lived on farms.
Gender roles:
Men: owned property, could participate in politics.
Women: bore on average about eight children; performed diverse household and work duties; divorce existed but was rare; legal and political rights for women were limited.
Economy by region:
New England: rocky soil and long winters led to subsistence farming; economy included logging, shipbuilding, fishing, trading, and rum distilling.
Middle Colonies: fertile land with wheat and corn; farms up to about acres; growth of small manufacturing like iron-making; cities such as Philadelphia and New York.
Southern Colonies: diverse geography; agriculture dominated by subsistence farms or large plantations using enslaved labor; major crops included tobacco (Chesapeake and North Carolina), timber and naval stores (tar and pitch) in the Carolinas, rice and indigo in South Carolina and Georgia; plantations often located on rivers to facilitate export.
Monetary system:
Britain regulated colonial money use; currency shortages led to paper money in some colonies, which often caused inflation when issued excessively.
Transportation:
Water transportation was easier; major ports included Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Charleston; gradual shift to overland travel and a growing postal system by the mid-18th century.
Religion:
Regional diversity in denominations: Congregationalists and Presbyterians in New England; Reformed Church in New York; Lutherans, Mennonites, Quakers in Pennsylvania; Anglicans in Virginia and the South; Catholics and some Jews in Maryland.
Discrimination against non-Protestants persisted; some groups faced significant political and social restrictions.
Challenges and tensions:
Religious groups faced discrimination; dissenters were banished or restricted; established churches remained in some colonies until the 19th century.
The Great Awakening and Intellectual Life
The Great Awakening emerged by the early 18th century as a religious revival noted for fervent preaching and emotional expression.
Jonathan Edwards (Congregationalist) preached about human sin and salvation, notably with his sermon “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God.”
George Whitefield (Anglican preacher) began in 1739, drawing huge crowds and emphasizing personal faith and direct access to salvation without clergy.
Religious impact:
Increased emotional expression in Protestant services; led to splits within denominations (New Lights vs Old Lights).
Diminished ministerial authority and encouraged lay Bible study; contributed to the growth of Baptists and Methodists.
Spurred discussions about the separation of church and state.
Political influence:
The Awakening helped foster a sense of shared colonial identity and questioned centralized authority, foreshadowing later revolutionary ideas about self-government.
The Enlightenment:
American thinkers were influenced by the Enlightenment, especially John Locke’s ideas on natural rights, the social contract, and government by consent of the governed; his notion that sovereignty resides with the people underpins later revolutionary thought.
The combination of religious and secular ideas helped shape a distinct American political and intellectual culture.
Culture, Education, and Intellectual Life
Arts, Sciences, and Architecture
By the 17th century, colonists began to display prosperity through architectural and decorative styles borrowed from England; Georgian architecture became common in eastern settlements; brick and stucco were common building materials; frontier housing often consisted of one-room log cabins.
Painting:
itinerant colonial painters traveled to commission portraits; the late colonial period saw Americans like Benjamin West and John Copley achieving recognition in England.
Literature and Ideas
Early authors focused on religion and politics; notable writers included Cotton Mather, Jonathan Edwards, John Adams, James Otis, John Dickinson, Thomas Paine, and Thomas Jefferson.
Benjamin Franklin rose as a leading figure with Poor Richard’s Almanack, popular from 1732 to 1757.
Phillis Wheatley, an African American poet who was enslaved in Boston, published poetry in 1773 and achieved recognition shortly after gaining her freedom.
Charles Brockden Brown emerged as one of the first American novelists (born 1771 in Philadelphia).
Education
Education was primarily aimed at males; female education was limited and focused on household duties.
Elementary education:
In New England, tax-supported schools were created due to Puritan emphasis on reading the Bible (Massachusetts law of 1647 mandated primary schools in towns).
In the Middle Colonies, schools were church-sponsored or private; in the South, education depended on the family and local tutors.
Higher education:
The Puritans founded Harvard College (established 1636) to train ministers.
The Anglicans founded William & Mary (1694) in Virginia.
The Congregationalists founded Yale (1701) in Connecticut.
The College of Philadelphia (1765) was nonsectarian and later became the University of Pennsylvania; Benjamin Franklin participated in its founding.
Professions and Intellectual Life
Ministry was a highly respected profession in the 17th century; physicians, lawyers, and printers played increasingly important roles.
The Zenger Case (1735): John Peter Zenger, a New York publisher, was tried for libel for criticizing the royal governor; his acquittal helped promote a freer press and encouraged critical journalism, though not a guaranteed right.
The Enlightenment and science:
John Bartram (botanist) contributed to American science; Franklin advanced electricity studies, bifocal glasses, and the Franklin stove.
Religion, Pluralism, and Governance
Religious toleration varied by colony, with Rhode Island and Pennsylvania offering broad freedoms; other colonies maintained established churches or restricted participation.
The Great Awakening and other religious movements contributed to debates about church/state separation and the rights of individuals to form religious communities without political coercion.
The Colonial Relationship with Britain and Colonial Identity
Colonial Identity and Politics
By mid-18th century, colonists shared English political traditions and common language/religion, while also developing an American identity shaped by environment, diverse populations, writers, artists, and the American landscape.
Observers noted Americans as restless, enterprising, practical, and continually seeking better opportunities.
Tensions between colonial independence and imperial authority intensified after 1763, as colonists pushed for more local control while Britain sought greater sovereignty.
Colonial Governance and Representation
By 1750, colonial governments typically included:
A governor as chief executive; a bicameral legislature with an elected assembly (lower house) and an upper house (council) appointed by the crown or proprietor.
The lower house (assembly) was elected by white male property owners and could vote on taxes.
The upper house (council) was either elected or appointed by the Crown depending on the colony.
Local government varied:
New England used town meetings for direct democracy.
Southern colonies relied on sheriffs and counties with less centralized local government.
Voting and Democratic Evolution
Democratic practices existed alongside significant exclusions: women, indentured servants, enslaved people, and many free Blacks could not vote.
Despite limitations, colonial government fostered greater self-rule than was typical in Europe, contributing to a sense of political autonomy.
The Atlantic Economy and Transatlantic Trade
The triangular trade connected New England, Africa, and Europe:
New England ships carried rum to West Africa in exchange for enslaved Africans.
Enslaved Africans endured the Middle Passage to the West Indies, where they were traded for sugarcane.
Sugar was transported back to New England ports to be processed into rum.
The routes sometimes included stops in England and/or Spain.
Profit margins were substantial for slave traders and merchants engaged in the triangular trade.
Key Figures and Terms to Remember
Juan Ponce de Leon – Florida, ; St. Augustine, ; oldest mainland European settlement in the future United States.
Samuel de Champlain – Quebec, ; Father of New France.
Louis Jolliet and Father Jacques Marquette – upper Mississippi, .
Robert de La Salle – named Louisiana after King Louis XIV, ; Mississippi exploration.
Henry Hudson – Hudson River, ; Dutch claims and New Amsterdam.
Peter Stuyvesant – Dutch governor of New Amsterdam before English control.
James I and the Virginia Company – Jamestown, ; later transition to royal colony in .
John Smith; Pocahontas; John Rolfe – leadership and tobacco cultivation in Virginia.
Mayflower and Plymouth – voyage of ; Thanksgiving .
Roger Williams – Providence, ; Rhode Island charter ; religious liberty.
Anne Hutchinson – antinomianism; Portsmouth, ; killed later in an uprising.
Thomas Hooker – Hartford, ; Fundamental Orders of Connecticut, .
William Penn – Pennsylvania; Frame of Government ; Charter of Liberties ; Philadelphia plan.
James Oglethorpe – Savannah and Georgia, ; early regulations and repurposing as royal colony in .
The Zenger Case – trial in ; early defense of press freedom.
The Navigation Acts – –; mercantilist policy; enumerated goods; colonial trade rules.
Connections and Relevance
The colonial era established patterns of self-government, religious tolerance, and economic organization that influenced American political philosophy and social norms.
The Great Awakening and Enlightenment ideas collectively fostered a culture of questioning authority and promoting individual rights, later foundational to the American Revolution and the Constitution.
The diverse origins and regional economies of the colonies created a transatlantic network that shaped global trade, patterns of settlement, and cultural exchange.
Practical and Ethical Implications
Religious toleration varied; while some colonies promoted religious liberty for certain groups, others maintained established churches and restricted others, highlighting ongoing struggles for religious and political rights.
The expansion of plantation agriculture and slave labor created a racial hierarchy with long-lasting consequences for American society and ethics.
Land acquisitions and relations with Native Americans were often marked by treaties, coercion, and conflict, raising questions about just governance and fair dealing.
Colonial governance balanced local autonomy with imperial authority, shaping later debates about federalism and representation in the United States.
Summary Quick-Reference
13 British colonies developed from Jamestown () to Georgia ().
Major colonial regions: New England, Mid-Atlantic, South (Chesapeake and Carolina lowlands).
English colonies combined economic aims (mercantilism) with evolving political rights and religious diversity.
The period witnessed significant population growth, the rise of a transatlantic economy, cultural flowering, and the emergence of a distinct colonial identity tied to experiences and ideas across the Atlantic.