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ADDITIONAL NOTES:

ANABOLIC

- build up from simpler to complex
- store energy

CATABOLIC

- breakdown large to simpler

- converted into energy

- has different stages
— first is digestion—catabolic begins in mouth

Digestion and hydrolysis break down large molecules to smaller ones that enter the bloodstream

- the smaller ones should be broken down into the smallest

Stage 2: Degradation breaks down molecules to two- and three-carbon compounds

Stage 3: Oxidation of small molecules in the citric acid cycle and electron transport provides ATP energy

STAGES OF METABOLISM DIAGRAM

- when you eat any food there is proteins carbohydrates and lipids

- proteins broken into its building block— amino acids

— it will undergo trasamination and can be converted into pyruvate acetylcoA or enter the citric acid cycle or kreb cycle then become ebnergy

- carbohydrates is either gonna be glucose fructose glactose—monossacharides

— all will be converted into glucose—it enters glycolysis ending pyruvate and small amount of ATP

- lipids in form of (idacalglecerol…?) ones broken down by (ligase…?) hydrolysis you now have your glycerol and your fatty acid

— glycerol is converted into pyruvate

— fatty acid undergoes beta-oxidation converted intonacetyl-CoA molecules, which can then enter the krebbs cycle to produce carbon dioxide and then will proceed to electrotransport chain, will have posporelation, ending you have ATP.

- first parts happen in the cytoplasm the latter happens in the mitochondria

Metabolic reactions occur at specific sites within cells.

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

- consists of adenine (nitrogenous base), a ribose which is nondeosy sugar, and three phosphoryl groups

if you go back to nucleic acid lesson you start with nitrogenous base then add sugar iwll give nucleoside then add pentose sugar and phosporyl group the you have nucleotide

—nucleotide can either exist as mono di or tri phosphate

- whenever you break down a phposphoryl group it releases 7.3 kcal/mole (31 kJ/mole)

- catabolic means release and if you build its absorbs

- if you break down nucleotide nitorgenous base pentose sugar mono di triphosphate

Hydrolysis of ATP

The hydrolysis of ATP to ADP releases 7.3 kcal (31 kJ/mole).

- catabolic breakdown release

- if you break ADP to AMP you still release same amount of energy

- can only break down once—AMP is unbreakable anymore

- P its a phosporyl group—present in phosphate ornucleotide—once it goes hydrolysis it becomes PI or inorganic phosphate

- ATP released energy

- glucose + inorganic phosphate + energy—absorbs

Energy from ATP Hydrolysi

- must memorize for the latter years

ATP and Muscle Contraction

Muscle fibers

- example is flexing muscle—but even salso the slightest movemnt involve contraction and relaxation of muscle—and to do it you need ATP or it does not happpen or you lose muscle control

Important Coenzymes in Metabolic Pathways

NAD+

▪ is nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide

▪ contains ADP, ribose, and nicotinamide

- important because it parciipate in reactions that produces a carbon oxygen double bond also known as yoyur carbonyl group

— reduced when an oxidation provides 2H+ and 2e – .

- H+ is often mispronounced as hydrogen ion but in metabolism it is proton

- in future pharmacology classes we have proton pump inhibitor

— when you have acid reflux you are given ometracol forte it is a proton pump inhibitor

— it undergoes oxydation—example is your ethanol—common source is alcoholic beverages—it is converted into acetaldehyde through the action of alcohol dehydrogenase

- you dont have sulfuric acid in the body becasue outside of the body oxidation is carried out using either sulfurc acid or potassium (tectonic…?)

- we have enzyme that produces (acetaldehyde…?) proton and your electron

- you now have (…?) reduction—your FAD + two proton + two electron = NADH and two proton

- we now have etanol in the presence of NAD+ and alcohol dehydrogenase while (…?) to an aldehyde NADH and a proton

- we need proton pump inhibitor—some people who drink that puke afterward is their alcohol aside from being converted to an acetaldehyde it is further converted intocarbocxylic acid and it is acid so it will be puked

- it is bad to make make the puke becaucse it damages lining of esophagus

- aside NAD you also have FAD

FAD is flavin adenine dinucleotide

▪ contains ADP and riboflavin (vitamin B2 )

- participates in reaction that produces carbon carbon double bond

- FAD is oxideized to become coenzyme FADH2

Coenzyme A

▪ consists of aminoethanethiol, vitamins B5 , (pantothenic acid), and ADP

▪ activates acyl groups such as the two-carbon acetyl group for transfer

- importance is thsi facilitate the prodcution of acetyl coA—and all pyruvate must be converted to acetyl coA before entering kreb cycle

Digestion of Carbohydrates

Stage 1: Digestion of Carbohydrates

- whenever you eaet you must chew your food properly

— your saliva produces salivary gland in your oral cavity

— in chewing mechanical mixing happens

- you have to chew food 20 to 30 times—the longer the food stays in your oral cavity it allows your saliva to mix properly to the food and the energy from chewing will tire the person out hence less food intake

- main point of digestion of carbohydrates is to covert all polysaccharise into glucose which is monosaccharide

- in tersm of huma bhealth we dont want food rich in di and monosacharide because the breakdown will be very minimal

- almost all of the food in our time is full of disaccharide and monosaccharide—milk tea starbucks

- if those sweeteners in your coffee goes to your body they just past through the tract easily and ready for absorption—but we want the complex ones because the longer your body takes to break down the longer it will take for you to crave for more

mouth have salivary amylase that converts polysachraides converted into dextrin maltose or glucose where they would go to stomach then small intenstine then dextrin will meet with pancreatic amylase then become maltos—maltose meeting with maltase be converted into glucose then the others so on and so forth

— if you have galactosemia where your body is unbable to produce lactsase then you become lactose intolerant—your body detects it as ofreign body which will give you IBS

- the most abundant one that could be produce is glucose

— the body can utilize lactose and fructose—it eneter a deifferent shuttle in your glycolysis

Glycolysis: Oxidation of Glucose

- Glycolysis is divided into two important phases

Energy Investment phase

- the first five step

- as the name suggest you are investing energy in form of ATP in hopes that in step 6-10 it becomes profit

step 1

- glucose in the presence of atp and the enzyme (…?) is converted to glucose-6-phosphate

- first energy investment

- ATP release energy and becomes ADP

- the other phosphate attaches to glucose

- kinase enzyme deliver a phosphate grouop that it is reason

- when you hear kinasetheres movement of phosphate group—youll just look what is movement is it toward OR AWAY ATP

- with glucose six phosphate will be converted into fructose six phosphate by a phosphoglucose isomerase

— when you hear isomerase you simply alter the structure

- from aldose to ketose

- fructose is ketose

- you didnt introduce anything just used enzyme

- from frustose six phosphate you use an enzyme called phosphofructokinase to deliver phosphate group—ATP becomes ADP again then the phosphate goes to fructose and it becomse fructose-1,6-bisphosphate,

— what special about this is that it has protons

- if you go back to step one earlier there is also proton

— each of your energy step aside from investing ATP it generates a proton

now you have fructose-1,6-bisphosphate next up is aldolase

- what it does it it cleaves so you have cleavage meaning

- if you break six carbon evenly you have three carbon—if you go back to earlier lessons three carbons is called glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate

- you dehydroxyacetone phosphate is converted into another glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate—which is different from the earlier one—so now you have two

- the only thing that will proceed to step 6 is you glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate

- your enzymes are triose phosphate isomerase

- starting from glucose then the first prodcut is glucose 6-phosphate with the enzyme hexokinase and it is with ATP that becomes ADP and is with proton also

- from glucose 6-phosphate it become fructose 6-phosphate catalyzed by the enzyme phosphoglucose isomerase—from aldose to ketose

- from fructose 6-phosphate you next have fructose 1,6-bisphosphate, which is formed through the action of the enzyme phosphofructokinase, with ATP that gets converted to ADP and also produces proton

- with fructose 1,6-bisphosphate next is glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate and dihydroxyacetone phosphate, which are produced by the enzyme aldolase, by mechanism of cleavage

dihydroxyacetone phosphate proceed to step 5 in the presence of the enzyme triose phosphate isomerase, transforming it into glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate and here ends energy investment

Glycolysis: Energy Production

- investment is done so now you profit ‘

- in step 6 you only need glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate—you have to make sure you have two of this—one is from step four the other one is product of step 5

- glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate in the presence of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase—you have now your inorganic phosphate + NAD+ → NADH and proton

— now you have three protons

- all generated proton in 6-10 you have to multiply by two because you have two glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate

- from glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate you now have 1,3 bisphosphoglycerate (1,3-BPG)—the other phosphate group is from inorganic phosphate

- 1,3 bisphosphoglycerate in the presence of kinase which delivers phosphate

— in energy investment is ATP to ADP but this time its ADP + proton = ATP

— you have 2 ATP becasue multiply by two

- at step 7 your investment is already gained—if you still generate ATP then it is your profit

- from 1,3 bisphosphoglycerate, you got the one phosphate group and now you have 3-phosphoglycerate (3-PGA) using the enzyme phosphoglycerate kinase

- 3-phosphoglycerate (3-PGA) in presence of oxygen will isomerize to 2-phosphoglycerate (2-PGA) through the action of the enzyme phosphoglycerate mutase—the structure didnt change but only positioning phosphate group

- 2-phosphoglycerate (2-PGA) in the presenc eof the enzyme enolase will undergo dehydration to form phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) which produces water

— evidence of water being produced is sweating urinating

- phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) in presence of the enzyme pyruvate kinase

— ATP + proton = ATP = pyruvate, earning you two ATP

- in the whole step you generate four but minus investment from profit then you get two

which can be further converted into glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P), using phospoglycerade kinase it become 3

KEY STEPS OF GLYCOLYSIS:

step 6

- because you have PI + nad+ AND nadh + A+ (…?)

step 7

- you generate ATP—first energy generation step

step 10

- second energy generaation step—that now becomes your profit

- if you look at the over all reaction

- you have the glucose, you have two NAD+ which (…?) in step 6

- you have two ADP + two PI becomes two ATP and gained during step 10

- you now have two pyruvate and two NADH which generated in step 6

- water is gained in step 9

- glycolysis is generated by the enzymes

1. the first reaction—hexokinase only move when your body need to break down glucose—-meaning it woul only breakdown if there are high levels of ADP and low level of ATP

- Your body would not want excess amount of energy then it wont want to generate more—ut wants to use hwat is existing

2. reaction 3—your phosphofructokinas at the end of the reaction 3 with the phosphofructokinase you produce Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate, which enter step 4 of glycolysis, ready to be cleaves by aldose

- if steop 3 does not break then it wont proceed to step 4—and once it breaks in step 4 it will be continuously

3. reaction 10—if you still have excess acetyl coA ehich is from (…?) pyruvate from glucose

- you can also get pyruvate from amino acid and lipid—if yuo have excess many acetyl coA YOUR BODY WOULDNT WANT TO PRODUCE

- thats your body regulation

- not because you ate it will produce and produce—if you still have energy they get stored and ready to be utilized whenever needed

Pathways for Pyruvate

- its destination on human body is two its either aerobic or anaerobic pathways the third one is fermentation by yeast but human do not have yeast in the body and does not produce alcohol

Aerobic Conditions

- when you say aerobic there is bountiful ampount of oxygen

- pyruvate in presence of coenzyme A and NAD+ with enzyme pyruvate dehydrogenase produces acetyl-CoA, which then enters the citric acid cycle (…) carbon dioxide NADH

- proof that you release carbon dioxide is your respiration

- carbon dioxide is biproduct of your cellular respiration specifically in conversion of pyruvate into acetylcoA under consitions you have enough oxygen

Anaerobic Conditions

- pyruvate is converted into lactate

- earlier NAD+ becomes NADH now it is reversed

- NADH is a reduced enzyme and NAD+ is an oxidized coenzyme

- you have pyruvate once it undergoes reduction you have NADH H+ becomes NAD+ in presence of lactate dehydrogenase and produces lactate.

- pyruvate is oxidized form of glucose

- once it become lactate it is now reduced form

- evidence of having to much lactate in body is muscle cramps

- muscle cramp happen when theres build up of lactate in the muscle—happen during physical activities and exercise—when you do this you dont breathe in properly and this create oxygen depth

- your body will give you fcramps so you breathe in

- thats why in physical activities you have cool down to recover oxygen depth and so you can go on with your day

- when you have cramps you stretch the muscle that is cramping and it should be partnered by breathing in and breathing out

- you can prevent builld up of lactate when you breathe properly

- period cramps is a different story because it is cause by hormones

- in others if theyre cramps really worsens it can be dismennorhea but some can survive the day

Fermentation

- in alcohol making you r pyruvate coming from your dugar in presence of of pyruvate decarboxylase which is fascilitated by microorganism

- when you but alcoholic beveraege it has bubbles and is carbon dioxide

- your pyruvate two possible pathway:

aerobic (..?) into acetyl coA

Anaerobic reduced to lactate

if there is microorganism that is fermentation