Revolutions and Industry: 1750-1900 Notes

Unit 5: Revolutions 1750-1900

Overview: This unit covers revolutions, industrialization, and global integration from 1750 to 1900, impacting various regions and empires.

5.1: The Enlightenment 1750-1900

Context: Changes due to the Industrial Revolution influenced by Enlightenment thought.
Definition: The Enlightenment was an 18th-century intellectual movement emphasizing reason to reassess accepted ideas and institutions.
Influences: A blend of the Scientific Revolution and Renaissance Humanism.
Emphasis: Applying human reason to understand natural laws.
Core Belief: The world operates under natural laws, and progress occurs by understanding them.
Shift in Thinking: Moving away from reliance on religion, tradition, or ancestral beliefs.
Focus: Emphasized individual reasoning over external authority.
Empiricism: Introduced by Francis Bacon, reality is understood through the senses, leading to scientific experiments and methods.
Thomas Hobbes: Author of Leviathan, argued humans lack moral compass without predetermined rules.
Political Philosophy: Justice exists only with an established sovereign.
John Locke: Advocate for natural rights in Two Treatises on Government.
Critique of Divine Right: Argued against the divine right of kings, asserting natural rights to life, liberty, and property.
Social Contract: Proposed a social contract where people grant power to a government that protects their natural rights.
Right to Overthrow: Implicitly supported the right to overthrow unjust governments.
Consequences: Led to the fall of empires and the rise of constitutional governments.
Nationalism: Fostered strong identification with shared ethnic identity and language.
Shift in Loyalty: Transformed loyalty from rulers to nations, threatening multiethnic empires.
Adam Smith: Advocated laissez-faire economics, criticizing mercantilist economies.
Laissez-faire Principles: No wealth limits, minimal government intervention, supply and demand driven markets.
Capitalism: Smith pioneered capitalism, asserting that economies self-regulate based on supply and demand.
Invisible Hand: Believed free economic decisions are guided by an "invisible hand," benefiting society.
Reevaluation of Religion: People reconsidered their relationship with religion, especially Christianity.
Deism: Emerged as an Enlightenment idea that God does not intervene in society.
Deistic View of God: God created natural laws but does not interfere, likening God to a watchmaker.
Conservatism: Some opposed Enlightenment changes, holding a strong belief in tradition and practical ideas.
Women's Rights: The Enlightenment empowered women's voices.
Mary Wollstonecraft: Argued for women's equality in her book Rights of Women.
Seneca Falls Convention: A U.S. rally for women's rights and suffrage.
Declaration of Sentiments: Adapted the Declaration of Independence to include women's equality.
Women's Independence: Advocated for women's financial independence from husbands.
Abolitionist Movement: Gained momentum with ideas of unalienable rights.
Slave Trade and Slavery: The U.S. banned the slave trade in 1808, but slavery persisted, leading to the Civil War and eventual abolition in 1865.
Emancipation of Serfs: Russia emancipated 23 million serfs due to Enlightenment thought.

5.2: Nationalism & Revolutions 1750-1900

Enlightenment Ideas: Pioneered natural rights and social contract concepts.
Source of Rights: Asserted rights are inherent in humans, not granted by governments.
Government's Role: Belief that government should protect rights through democratic processes and constitutional frameworks.
American Revolution (1765 – 1791): Triggered by the principles mentioned above.
Colonial Independence: Colonies grew independent due to geographical isolation and lack of parliamentary representation.
Taxation Without Representation: Key grievance of the American colonies.
Declaration of Independence: U.S. declared independence on July 4, 1776. Inspired by Enlightenment ideals, especially John Locke’s ideas.
Key Phrases: “Unalienable rights,” “governments derive powers from the consent of the governed.”
French Assistance: The U.S. gained independence with French aid and home advantage.
Inspiration for French Revolution: The American Revolution inspired the French Revolution.
Economic Troubles in France: France faced economic difficulties in the 1780s due to war spending.
Estates-General Meeting: King Louis XVI convened the Estates-General in 1789.
Representation of Estates: Included clergy, nobility, and commoners; the commoners, 98% of the population, had minimal voting power.
National Assembly: The Third Estate formed the National Assembly due to unfair voting.
Storming of the Bastille: On July 14, 1789, a crowd stormed the Bastille, symbolizing monarchical abuse.
Peasant Uprisings: Revolutionary fervor incited peasants against nobles.
Shift in Power: Louis XVI was compelled to share power with the National Assembly.
Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen: French Revolution document inspired by Enlightenment thought and the American Declaration of Independence.
Reign of Terror: Led by Maximilien Robespierre, with mass executions of perceived enemies; Louis XVI was also executed.
Haitian Revolution: A French colony with French plantation owners and enslaved Africans.
Revolution Against Owners: Revolt by enslaved Africans against plantation owners.
Toussaint L’ouverture: Led the rebellion against the French in 1791.
Successful Slave Revolution: First successful revolution by enslaved people, creating an independent black-led nation.
New Zealand Wars: Britain annexed New Zealand in 1840, leading to conflict with the native Maori.
British Suppression: By 1872, British forces suppressed the Maori rebellion.
Latin American Revolution: Occurred due to Enlightenment thought.
Creole Grievances: Creoles wanted to revolt due to mercantilist policies favoring the peninsulares.
Profit Loss: Creoles lost profits due to Spanish mercantilist policies.
Denial of Authority: Creoles often were excluded from positions of authority.
Simon Bolivar: Led creoles against Spain, forming Gran Colombia.
Enlightenment Principles: Bolivar advocated for constitutional republics and natural rights.
Unification of Italy and Germany: Processes similar to revolutions.
Italian Unification: Italy had been divided into competing states since the fall of Rome.
Count Cavor: Prime Minister who led the unification under the House of Savoy in 1848.
Unification of Germany: Achieved through wars engineered by Otto von Bismarck.
New German Empire: Founded in 1871 after uniting the German people.

5.3: Industrial Revolution Begins 1750-1900

Definition: The Industrial Revolution involved using machines to enhance labor efficiency in producing goods.
Impact: It had significant cultural and economic effects.
Proximity to Water: Island country with rivers and canals for inexpensive trade.
Raw Materials: Abundant coal and iron reserves in England.
Productive Agriculture: Increased harvests through crop rotation and seed drills.
Crop Rotation: Enhanced soil fertility.
Seed Drill: Enabled precise planting of seeds.
Urbanization: Increased food production led to higher population and migration to cities for jobs.
Legal Protection of Private Property: Encouraged entrepreneurs to take risks without fear of government seizure.
Access to Foreign Resources: England's global empire provided access to various raw materials from colonies.
Colonial Resources: Colonies worldwide supplied necessary materials.
Accumulation of Capital: British capitalists invested profits from the slave trade into entrepreneurial ventures.
Factory System: Centralized manufacturing of goods for sale.
Richard Arkwright: He is considered the father of the factory, invented the water frame.
James Hargraves: Invented the spinning jenny in 1760, enhancing textile production.
Combined Effect: Combined spinning jenny and water frame.
Eli Whitney: Introduced interchangeable parts.
Interchangeable Parts: Interchangeable parts facilitated mass production with simple, repetitive tasks.
Shift in Labor: Needed less skilled laborers.

5.4: Industrial Revolution Spreads 1750-1900

Initial Conditions in Britain: Optimal due to waterways, lack of wars, and abundant resources.
Key Resources: iron, coal, colonial resources
Wave 1: Belgium, France, Germany.
Wave 2: U.S., Japan, Russia
Role of Entrepreneurs: Industrialization was primarily driven by entrepreneurs and the business class.
Delays/Challenges: Political turmoil from the French Revolution and a delayed agricultural revolution due to enclosure movements.
Advantages: Colonies overseas, access to waterways, and a large labor force.
Political Fragmentation: Political fragmentation hindered industrial growth until 1871.
Leading Producer: Germany quickly became a leading producer of steel and coal due to abundant natural resources.
Leading Industrial Force: The U.S. became a leading industrial power by the 1900s due to peace, abundant waterways, and rising capitalism.
Government Protection: The government protected banking and investments, fostering capitalism.
Human Capital: A significant migrating workforce in the late 19th and early 20th centuries facilitated industrial growth.
Mass Immigration: Political instability in Europe led to mass immigration to the U.S. from Europe and Asia.
Low-Wage Labor: Immigrants often worked in low-wage, unskilled jobs, leading to discrimination.
State-Driven Industrialization: Industrialization in Russia was driven by the government.
Abolition of Serfdom: Alexander II abolished serfdom in 1861.
Trans-Siberian Railroad: Alexander III initiated the Trans-Siberian railroad in 1891, which took 20 years to complete.
Agricultural Economy: Russia's economy remained largely agricultural, with industrial focus shifting during the Russian Revolution.
Defensive Modernization: Japan industrialized to preserve its values and traditions, repelling Western influence.
Loss of Market Share: The share of Middle Eastern and Asian goods in the global market decreased.
Tariffs: Shipbuilding in India faced tariffs by the British, hindering industrial growth.

5.5: Tech of the Industrial Age 1750-1900

Two Industrial Revolutions: Distinguished by time frame and technology.
Time Frame: From the mid-18th to mid-19th century.
Steam Engine: Invented by James Watt, used coal to produce steam for engines.
Impact of Steam Engine: Factories could be built anywhere, resulting in widespread industrial growth.
Ships and Locomotives: Facilitated trade in all industrialized nations and increased trade along upstream rivers.
Trans-Siberian Railroad: Boosted trade with eastern states like China.
Trade and Migration: Increased trade and migration in the United States.
Time Frame: From the late 19th to early 20th century.
Leading Countries: U.S., U.K., Germany.
Key Technologies: Steel, gas power, and communications.
Bessemer Process: Blasting hot iron with air to remove impurities and creating steel.
Result: Allowed people to create mass quantities of steel.
Oil Wells: Oil wells were drilled everywhere by the mid-1800s.
Refinement: Raw oil refined into kerosene and gasoline.
Gasoline: Became primary fuel for internal combustion engines.
Internal Combustion Engine: Developed in the late 19th century.
Telegraph: Invented by Samuel Morse in the 1830s and 40s.
Telephone: Invented by Alexander Graham Bell in 1876.
Increased Trade: facilitated by new transport technologies.
Waves of Migration: Fueled by easier movement and communication.

5.6: Industrialization: Government's Role 1750-1900

Russian Encounters: Led to Industrialization by the government.
Failed Interactions: encounters with industrial states.
Abolition of Serfdom: Occurred to make more of a workforce for industrialization.
Industrialization Launch: Launched by Russia in the 1890s, directed and paid by the government but with foreign investment.
Key Industries: Focused on steel, coal, and textiles, and the Trans-Siberian Railway.
Coal Production: Russia became the fourth largest coal producer but still largely relied on agriculture.
Ottoman Encounters: Encounters with industrial states.
Sick Man of Europe: This was the nickname given to the empire.
Muhammad Ali in Egypt: Local control was agreed to, with reforms in military, schools, and newspapers. He also gained Cotton Production Control
Cotton Production Control: Gained cotton production control by overtaxing peasants and controlled textile factories.
Production Hubs: Weapons in Cairo, shipbuilding in Alexandria.
Modern Ruler: Considered the first modern ruler of Egypt.
US Open Door Policy: Pushed for open-door policy to open trade since if refused would had to surrender to the American navy.
China's Experience: served as an example of Western influence where the forced sale of opium was used to open trade.
Unequal Treaties: Signed to open Japan.
Defensive Industrialization: Industrialization to defend against the west (Christian missionaries, etc).
Meiji Restoration: Used family name of emperor.
Modeled after Europe/US: Modeled after Western practices like the Abolition of feudalism and institution of constitution/individual rights as well as expanded their education and military.
State-Run industrialization: State run industrialization as a consequence of these reforms.
Successful Economy: A successful industrial economy also eliminated unequal treaties.
Treaty of 1902: The treaty of 1902 declared Japan equal to the other powers.
Contrast with Asia: Stark contrast to other Asian states.

5.7: Economic Developments and Innovations 1750-1900

Shift from Mercantilism: States abandoned mercantilism in favor of laissez-faire capitalism.
Corporations: Similar to joint-stock companies but introduced limited liability.
Limited Liability: Shareholders gained benefits but had limited liability for company failures.
Multinational Corporations: Rose to wealth on a massive scale; for example, the Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation, and Unilever Corporation.
Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking corporation: Established to open trade with british after the opium wars.
Unilever Corporation: Corporation created to sell household items such as soap.
Consumer Culture: It expanded due to rise of capitalism and manufactured goods.
Rising Living Standards: People had more money to spend on consumer products.
Overproduction: Companies produced more than populations could buy.
Advertising Industry: Arose to increase sales by making people feel bad for not owning products.
Leisure Culture: Leisure culture arose as a result of long hours in factories.
Popular forms of leisure: Pubs became popular, leading to alcoholism, bicycles gained popularity among the middle class, and spectator sports and betting increased.

5.8: Reactions to the Industrial Revolution 1750-1900

Dangerous Conditions: Factory work was dangerous, with no safety regulations, a high rate of disease, and poor air quality.
Slum and Tenements: Factory workers lived in slums and tenements, which spread disease.
Labor Unions: A group of workers who organize themselves into a collective of workers using their combined voice for reform.
Labor union Opposition: Were opposed at first but fought back and gained 5 day work week, limit on hours worked, and minimum wage laws
Societal Reform: Labor unions pushed for societal reform specifically for the right to vote.
Franchise Expansion: Expanded to allow all men to vote and then expanded to women.
Child Labor: Factory owners employed many children for their small size and their even lower salaries.
Child Labor conditions: Children worked 12-14 hours in factories, they developed physical deformities and in some cases, deadly sicknesses.
Laws Passed: In 1843, A Law in U.S. made it illegal for children under 10 to work in coal mines, there were also laws for mandatory education were also passed.
Criticisms: Resistance to Industrialization from thinkers by individuals such as John Stuart Mill and Karl Marx.
John Stuart Mill: Criticized capitalism because it was a selfish system.
Utilitarianism: Created idea of utilitarianism where every individual action should be carried out for the happiness of the whole rather than the individual
Karl Marx: Divided society into the Bourgeoisie and the Proletariat.
Communist Manifesto: Argued for workers to own means of production and share wealth.
Ottoman Reforms: Sultan Mahmud II reformed Ottoman state in respect to industrialization. There was the abolition of the feudal system, the building of roads, and postal worker reforms.
Tanzimat: A program of reforms carried out by Mahmud’s sons.
Ottoman Society; Secular schools for children created and the Updating of the legal system to have equality for all before the law.
Sultan Abdul Hamid: Favored reforms but began to fear the radical reformers called the Young Turks who were then exiled.
Rise of Nationalist Friction: Armenians in Ottoman Empire wanted reform too, but Hamid persecution and massacring them (Armenian Genocide in un 6).
Chinese Modernization: Qing Dynasty knew that they needed to modernize to keep power.
Self-Strengthening Movement: A period of reform created in order to protect culture from Western encroachment, it failed however.
Sino-Japanese War: Japanese won the Sino-Japanese war against China reigniting their impulse for reform.
Hundred Days of Reform: Reforms such as The Removal of Civil Service Exam and the Creation of industrial and commercial systems patterned on Western Institutions in order to compete.
Empress Dowager Cixi: Didn't like reform, which led to Boxer Rebellion which invited foreign invasion from Allied Powers.
Empress Change of Heart: Relents and Allowed for weakening and modernization of china.
China trade for Help: China received help from western powers to modernize in exchange for exclusive trading rights in certain parts of China.

5.9: Society and the Industrial Age 1750-1900

City Changes: Cities changed with influx of migrants from rural areas into urban areas.
Tenements Arise: Factory owners built tenements which were hastily constructed, poorly ventilated, and overcrowded homes.
Unsanitary: Because of how unsanitary the conditions were, disease spread form human waste.
Sewage and Waste removal processes: Was lacking at the time but created to reduce disease.
Increase in Standard of Living: Rise of a growing middle class, with better access to consumer goods and education.
New Workforce: Emergence of white-collar workers in office or management jobs.
Social Hierarchy: Top of social hierarchy were the industrialists, factory owners.
Fractured: Used to have whole family work on farms, now whole family would go work in factories and come home at nights.
Women in Factories: Many working class women would also work in factories while some middle class women would also stay home to raise children.
Cult of Domesticity: Bestowed dignity upon women by saying their work at home was valuable for raising children
Womens want change: Movements for women’s suffrage and women’s rights began in this period and created changes to U.S. declaration of independence to include women too.
Environment Impact: Smog from fossil fuels caused respiratory issues, water supplies were polluted by human waste.

5.10: Continuity and Change in the Industrial Age 1750-1900

Increased Standard of Living: Led to new job openings, improvements in working conditions.
Industrial Capitalism Improvement: Led to Higher Production of goods and created Improvements in transportation such as Railroads, steamships, long distance.
New Technologies: New technologies such as steam engine allowed for mass production decrease in cost of goods making them more affordable for a wider range of people.
Working Conditions: Working conditions were poor in low-paying jobs for high hours and bad working conditions increase gap between rich and poor.
Railroads: Railroads allowed for rapid and large-scale movement of people and goods, which made it possible to settle and develop previously isolated regions.
Steamships: Steamships allowed for the rapid movement of goods and people across water
The telegraph: The telegraph allowed for the rapid transmission of information
Step 1: Ideological foundation | Enlightenment that Philosophies redefined understandings of the natural world by emphasizing power of reason and observation for understanding.
Enlightenment: Philosophers such as Francis Bacon and René Descartes emphasized the importance of systematic observation and experimentation as a means of understanding the natural world that Encouraged people to be scientific.
Individual Rights: John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau emphasized the importance of individual rights and freedoms and rejected the idea of the divine right of kings and absolute monarchies.
Social Contract: Advocated for concept of social contract and that Societies should have basic rights (life, liberty, property).
Step 2: Enlightenment diffused through books and printed materials distributed throughout Europe and the Americas as more people became educated.
Spreading Enlightenment: Newspapers and journals spread their ideas further as well as growth of education, literacy, mass media and Mass media spread ideas to wider audience.
1. Reason and rationality that are the abilities to Question traditional beliefs and practices and rely on reason and evidence to make decisions and form opinions.
2. Individualism: Valued individual rights, freedom, autonomy
3. Scientific inquiry: which focus on Science and evidence-based thinking, empirical evidence
4. Human rights: Belief in Human rights and equality in law
Other Important aspects: There was Critical thinking and skepticism: Religious toleration through Seperation of church and state led to a tradition of religious freedom and the protection of minority religions.
Nationalism: Political factors involved creating Nation-states that became dominant in political organization. Economic factors led to capitalism and industrialization which the social factors led to Education, literacy and mass media that created a shared culture and identity.
New art: Led to New art and literature that resulted in colonies using Resistance against the colonial powers fueled nationalism in colonies used the desire for self-rule and independence.
Step 3: revolutions and rebellions such as the American Evolution and the french revolution. Led to rebellions and new nation states.
Rebellions and Revolutions that led to the formation of new nation:
American Revolution (1775-1783) formed USA from Britain
French Revolution (1789-1799)
Monarchy → republic & Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte and his empire
Haitian Revolution (1791-1804)
Fought by enslaved Africans and Afro-Caribbeans
Latin American Wars of Independence (1810-1825)
Indian Rebellion of 1857 (Indian Mutiny)
Attempt by Indian soldiers to overthrow British rule in India that was unsuccessful but marked a turning point, led to the eventual dissolution of the British East India Company