Old Testament Overview: Key Concepts and Timeline

Overview of the Old Testament

• The Old Testament (OT) comprises the foundational scriptures of Judaism and early Christianity.
• Structure and canons:
  • Hebrew Bible (Tanakh) is organized differently from Christian Old Testaments. The Tanakh consists of three parts:
  • T = Torah (the Law)
  • N = Nevi'im (the Prophets)
  • K = Ketuvim (the Writings)
  • The Hebrew Bible typically has 24 books in total; the Christian Old Testament has 39 books (in the Protestant tradition).
  • The order and grouping differ between traditions; Catholics and Orthodox include additional books known as the Apocrypha/Deuterocanonical materials.
• English-language note: Jewish scripture does not include the New Testament; Christians include the OT as part of their Bible but order and emphasis vary by tradition.
• Key terms:
  • Tanakh = T + N + K (Torah, Nevi'im, Ketuvim).
  • Pentateuch = Torah (the first five books: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy).
  • Testament vs Covenant: Old Covenant (Old Testament) and New Covenant (New Testament). The New Testament does not automatically supersede the Old Testament; both are interrelated in Christian theology.
• Bible contents and major divisions (as described in the transcript):
  • Torah (Pentateuch): Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy.
  • History: Joshua, Judges, Ruth, 1 Samuel, 2 Samuel, 1 Kings, 2 Kings, 1 Chronicles, 2 Chronicles (in Christian order); in Hebrew tradition these are treated as one scroll and the count is 24 books total in TANAKH.
  • Poetry and Wisdom (Ketuvim): Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes (Qoheleth), Song of Songs (Song of Solomon); plus other writings depending on tradition.
  • Prophets (Nevi'im): Major Prophets (Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel) and Minor Prophets (the Twelve). Some scholars also include Lamentations and Daniel among the Major Prophets.
• Important note on perspective:
  • The Bible is described as true and meaningful, but not every statement is presented as factual in a modern historical sense. The author uses examples to illustrate different kinds of truth (e.g., physiological childbirth vs. a poem).
• The material emphasizes that Christianity emerged from Judaism and began as a movement within that context.

The Bible: Old Testament versus New Testament

• “Testament” means covenant; Old Covenant vs New Covenant.
• The New Testament does not simply supersede the Old Testament; both are seen as part of a broader biblical narrative in Christian theology.
• Marcion of Sinope (2nd century CE) argued that the New Testament superseded the Old; he was declared a heretic and excommunicated.
• In the New Testament writings, when they refer to “scripture,” they generally refer to the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament; the New Testament writings were still being composed.
• Key citation:
  • 2\ Timothy\ 3:16: "All scripture is inspired by God and is useful for teaching, for reproof, for correction, and for training in righteousness."

Christianity and Judaism: Context and implications

• Christianity originated as a movement within Judaism and initially identified as a sect within Judaism.
• The Bible is described as true but not always factual in the modern sense; different kinds of truth can be conveyed through different genres (history, poetry, prophecy, etc.).
• Example given: reading physiology textbooks vs. poetry in McCalls magazine—both can be true in different ways.

The Hebrew Bible/Old Testament: Books, canons, and structure

• The OT contains 39 books in traditional Christian canons; the Hebrew Bible has 24.
• The Tanakh organization:
  • Torah (the Five Books of Moses): Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy.
  • Nevi'im (Prophets).
  • Ketuvim (Writings).
• The Torah is the most important part of the Bible for Jews; the Five Books of Moses are foundational for Jewish law and identity. Christians view the Torah as foundational as well, but with different interpretive emphases.

The Torah / Pentateuch: Authorship and significance

• The Torah means “law” or “teaching” and is central to both Judaism and Christianity.
• Traditional Jewish teaching attributes authorship to Moses; hence the name “Five Books of Moses.”
• Contemporary scholarship recognizes multiple strands and layers in the Torah; some traditions view Moses as the main figure, while others see it as a woven compilation of several traditions compiled over time.

The History books

• After the first five books, the historical books are Joshua, Judges, Ruth, 1 Samuel, 2 Samuel, 1 Kings, 2 Kings, 1 Chronicles, 2 Chronicles.
• These books narrate Israel’s history, including the monarchy, with references to real people, places, and events; some episodes are corroborated by non-biblical sources.
• There are two different historical narratives: 1–2 Samuel and 1–2 Kings present one version, while 1–2 Chronicles presents another (the Chronicler’s perspective).
• The historical book tradition is written from a theological perspective, evaluating kings based on their adherence to the Way of God rather than purely on earthly achievements.
• Samuel is highlighted as a central figure behind the historical books.

Women in the Old Testament

• Ancient Israel was a patriarchal culture, yet women appear in prominent roles and there are whole books named after women where they play key roles.

The Prophetic Books: Major and Minor

• The Prophetic Books (Nevi'im) are divided into Major Prophets and Minor Prophets.
• Major Prophets: Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel (some scholars also include Lamentations and Daniel in this group).
• Minor Prophets: Twelve (The Twelve) — a single scroll in the Hebrew Bible.
• Prophecy is not primarily about predicting the distant future; it is an assessment of the present and warnings about consequences for injustice, lack of faith, and failure to live righteously. It emphasizes moral and social accountability.

The Apocrypha / Deuterocanonical Books: Historical context

• Israel’s geography made it a strategic hotspot, attracting various kingdoms and powers.
• Key historical dates and events:
  • 722\ BCE: Northern 10 Tribes of Israel conquered by the Assyrians.
  • 586\ BCE: Southern Kingdom of Judah (Judah and Benjamin) conquered by the Babylonians under Nebuchadnezzar II; elites exiled to Babylon; Ezra oversees the writing down of sacred texts during this exile.
  • 539\ BCE: Persian Empire under Cyrus the Great conquers Babylon; Jews allowed to return home and rebuild Jerusalem and the Temple; many choose to stay in Babylon; rebuilding is more challenging than expected.
  • 330\ BCE: Alexander the Great conquers much of the ancient world, including Israel; Greek language and culture become dominant (Hellenization).
• The historical context sets the stage for the Septuagint and later developments in the biblical canon.

The Hellenistic Era, Septuagint, and the Canon

• The Process of Hellenization:
  • Jewish communities debated assimilation to Greek culture versus maintaining traditional practices.
  • The Septuagint (LXX) was produced during this period by 70 Jewish scholars commissioned by Alexander the Great (hence the name LXX).
  • The Greek translation helped Jews who no longer knew Hebrew to read the Hebrew Bible and stay faithful.
  • Books not part of the Hebrew canonical list but translated into Greek formed the Apocrypha in the broader tradition.
• The Greek Empire lasted until 63\ BCE, but its language and culture influenced later periods, including the language of the New Testament (Greek).

The Maccabean Revolt and Jewish Sovereignty under the Hasmoneans

• After Alexander’s death, his empire fragmented; local rulers oppressed the Jews.
• In the second century BCE, Antiochus IV Epiphanes attempted to force Hellenistic worship and forbade Jewish practices; he desecrated the Temple by erecting a statue of himself and banning kosher foods.
• The Jewish revolt led by Judas Maccabeus and his brothers reclaimed the Temple and rededicated the altar, commemorated by Hanukkah in 164 BCE.
• Hasmonean self-rule lasted until the arrival of Roman power (Rome's dominance began around 63\ BCE).

The Roman Era and the Early Christian Movement

• In 70 CE, Rome destroyed the Second Temple in Jerusalem (the last major destruction of the temple).
• The Roman Empire persecuted Jews and Christians alike; the movement within Judaism that followed Jesus (the Way) progressed, and Christians began to be identified as such (Acts 11:26 in Antioch).
• In 337 CE, Constantine the Great was baptized and made Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire; persecution diminished, but church corruption emerged in later centuries.

Jerome, the Latin Vulgate, and the Latin Tradition

• Saint Jerome (347–420 CE) translated the Old Testament from Hebrew into Latin, creating the Latin Vulgate (the common language of the people).
• Jerome did not use the Septuagint as his source for the Old Testament.
• He faced a dilemma about the Apocrypha: the Hebrew Bible did not include them, but he placed them in a separate section between the Old and New Testaments, a practice followed in many study Bibles today.

Luther and the Protestant Bible

• Martin Luther (1483–1546) further complicated the canon by not including the Apocrypha in his German translation.
• As a result, many Protestant Bibles historically did not include these books.

Bible Terminology: Pseudepigrapha, Apocrypha, and Deuterocanonical

• Pseudepigrapha: Ancient works about biblical people and events that are not officially accepted into any Christian canon; often referenced in discussions of non-canonical ancient literature (e.g., Nag Hammadi materials).
• Apocrypha: The term used by Protestants for contested books of the Septuagint.
• Deuterocanonical: The term used by Catholics and Orthodox Christians for the contested books of the Septuagint.

The Tetragrammaton and the Divine Name

• Tetragrammaton refers to the four-letter Hebrew name of God: YHWH, often represented in English as the LORD (in all caps).
• The name YHWH appears in Exodus 3:14, where God reveals the divine name in the statement I AM (Hebrew: "Ehyeh Asher Ehyeh"), traditionally rendered as YHWH.
• In Jewish practice, the name of God is treated as holy and not spoken aloud.
• When reading aloud, Jews typically substitute Adonai (the Lord) for YHWH to avoid pronouncing the sacred name.
• Masoretes later added vowels to the consonantal YHWH to preserve pronunciation cues; this led to forms such as Jehovah in English, though many scholars prefer Yahweh as the accurate vocalization.
• Adonai is the Hebrew word meaning “my Lord,” used as a spoken substitute when reading scriptures aloud.
• The practice of vowel insertion into YHWH by Masoretes aimed to prevent sacrilege and mispronunciation.

Exodus 3:14: "I AM WHO I AM" and the sacred ground

• The famous biblical moment when Moses asks for God's name; God responds with the self-designation that underpins the concept of the divine name YHWH.
• Moses is instructed to take off his sandals because the ground is holy (Exodus 3:5).
• The combination of these verses anchors Jewish reverence for God’s unpronounceable name and the practice of refraining from pronouncing it aloud.