MGMT

Intuition: Gut feelings, Individual observation and Commonsense

Systematic study: Looking at relationships, attempting to attribute causes and effects, and drawing conclusions based on scientific evidence.

Contributing disciplines

Psychology: The science that seeks to measure, explain, and sometimes change the behavior of humans and other animals.

Sociology: The study of people in relation to their fellow human beings.

Social Psychology: An area within psychology that blends concepts from psychology and sociology and that focuses on the influence of people on one another.

Anthropology: The study of societies to learn about human beings and their activities.

Contingency variables: "ItDepends!!!"

Situational factors that make the main relationship between two variables change— e.g., the relationship may hold for one condition but not another

Model: An abstraction of reality. A simplified representation of some real-world phenomenon.

Dependent variable: A response that is affected by an independent variable (what organizational behavior researchers try to understand).

Productivity: Transforming inputs to outputs at lowest cost. Includes the concepts of effectiveness (achievement of goals) and efficiency (meeting goals at a low cost).

Absenteeism: Failure to report to work – a huge cost to employers.

Turnover: Voluntary and involuntary permanent withdrawal from an organization.

Deviant Workplace Behavior: Voluntary behavior that violates significant organizational norms and thereby threatens the well-being of the organization and/or any of its members.

Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB): Discretionary behavior that is not part of an employee’s formal job requirements, but that nevertheless promotes the effective functioning of the organization.

Job Satisfaction: A general attitude (not a behavior) toward one’s job; a positive feeling of one's job resulting from an evaluation of its characteristics.

Independent variable: The presumed cause of some change in the dependent variable; major determinants of a dependent variable.The independent variable (X) can be at any of these three levels in this model:

Individual: Biographical characteristics, personality and emotions, values and attitudes, ability, perception, motivation, individual learning and individual decision making.

Group: Communication, group decision making, leadership and trust, group structure, conflict, power and politics, and work teams.

Organization System: Organizational culture, human resource policies and practices, and organizational structure and design.

Chapter 2 Diversity in Organization

Surface-level Diversity: Differences in easily perceived characteristics, such as gender, race, ethnicity, age, or disability, that do not necessarily reflect the ways people think or feel but that may activate certain stereotypes.

Deep-level Diversity: Differences in values, personality, and work preferences that become progressively more important for determining similarity as people get to know one another better.

Discrimination: Noting of a difference between things; often we refer to unfair discrimination, which meansmaking judgments about individuals based on stereotypes regarding their demographic group.

Biographical Characteristics: Personal characteristics—such as age, gender, race and tenure—that are objective and easily obtained from personnel records.

Age

The U.S. workforce is aging.

Does job performance decline with increasing age?

Studies show that turnover and absenteeism rates are lower among older workers, and age is not associated with lower productivity.

Gender

There are no consistent male-female differences in problem-solving ability, analytical skills, competitive drive, motivation, sociability, or learning drive.

But women earn less than men for the same positions and have fewer professional opportunities

Race and Ethnicity

Employees tend to favor colleagues of their own race in performance evaluations, promotion decisions, and pay raises.

African Americans and Hispanics perceive higher levels of discrimination in the workplace.

Disabilities

The U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission classifies a person as disabled who has any physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major life activities.

Workers with disabilities receive higher performance evaluations, but may have lower performance expectations.

Ability: An individual’s capacity to perform the various tasks in a job.

Intellectual Ability: The capacity to do mental activities.

Multiple Intelligences: Intelligence contains four subparts: cognitive, social, emotional, and cultural.

Physical Abilities: The capacity to do tasks demanding stamina, dexterity, strength, and similar characteristics.

Diversity Management: The process and programs by which managers make everyone more aware of and sensitive to the needs and differences of others.

Chapter 3 Attitudes and Job Satisfaction

Attitudes: Evaluative statements or judgments (either favorable or unfavorable) concerning objects, people or events. ex “I like my job”

Affective Component:(feeling) The emotional or feeling segment of an attitude.

Cognitive component:(evaluation) The opinion or belief segment of an attitude.

Behavioral Component:(action) An intention to behave in a certain way toward someone or something.

Cognitive Dissonance

Any incompatibility between two or more attitudes or between behavior and attitudes.

Individuals seek to reduce this gap, or “dissonance”

Job Satisfaction: A collection of positive and/or negative feelings that an individual holds toward his or her job.

Job Involvement: Identifying with the job, actively participating in it, and considering performance important to self-worth.

Organizational Commitment Identifying with a particular organization and its goals, and wishing to maintain membership in the organization (Affective, Normative, and Continuance

Commitment)

Affective commitment: an emotional attachment to the organization and a belief in its values. Continuance commitment: the perceived economic value of remaining with an organization compared to leaving it.

Normative commitment: an obligation to remain with the organization for normal or ethical reasons.

Perceived Organizational Support (POS): Degree to which employees feel the organization cares about their well-being.

Employee Engagement: An individual’s involvement with, satisfaction with, and enthusiasm for the organization.

Attitude Surveys: Eliciting responses from employees through questionnaires about how they feel about their jobs, work groups, supervisors, and the organization.

Expression of Dissatisfaction

Exit: Behavior directed toward leaving the organization.

Voice: Active and constructive attempts to improve conditions.

Neglect: Allowing conditions to worsen.

Loyalty: Passively waiting for conditions to improve.

Chapter 4 Emotions and Moods

Emotional Labor: A situation in which an employee expresses organizationally desired emotions during interpersonal transactions.

Felt Emotions: An individual’s actual emotions.

Displayed Emotions: Emotions that are organizationally required and considered appropriate

in a given job.

Applications of emotions and moods:

Selection: EI should be a hiring factor, especially for social jobs.

Decision Making: Positive emotions can lead to better decisions.

Creativity: Positive mood increases flexibility, openness, and creativity.

Motivation: Positive mood affects expectations of success; feedback amplifies this effect.

Leadership: Emotions are important to acceptance of messages from organizational leaders.

Negotiation: Emotions, skillfully displayed, can affect negotiations

Customer Services: Emotions affect service quality delivered to customers

which, in turn, affects customer relationships.

Emotional Contagion: “catching” emotions from others

Job Attitudes: Can carry over to home, but dissipate overnight

Deviant Workplace Behaviors: Negative emotions lead to employee deviance

(actions that violate norms and threaten the

organization)

Manager’s Influence: Leaders who are in a good mood, use humor, and

praise employees increase positive moods in the

workplace.

Chapter 5 personality and values

Personality is a dynamic concept describing the growth and development of a person’s whole psychological system.

The sum total of ways in which an individual reacts to and interacts with others.

Heredity

Factors determined at conception: physical stature, facial attractiveness, gender, temperament, muscle composition and reflexes, energy level, and bio- rhythms

This “Heredity Approach” argues that genes are the source of personality

Twin studies: raised apart but very similar personalities

Parents don’t add much to personality development

There is some personality change over a long time periods

The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is the most widely used personality framework.

The big five models of personality dimensions

Extroversion: Sociable, gregarious, and assertive

Agreeableness: Good-natured, cooperative, and trusting.

Conscientiousness: Responsible, dependable, persistent, and organized.

Openness to Experience: Curious, imaginative, artistic, and sensitive

Emotional Stability: Calm, self-confident, secure under stress (positive), versus

nervous, depressed, and insecure under stress (negative).

Machiavellianism: A pragmatic, emotionally distant power-player who believes that ends justify the means

Narcissism: An arrogant, entitled, self-important person who needs excessive admiration. Less effective in their jobs.

Locus of Control: The degree to which people believe they are masters of their own fate.

Internals (Internal locus of control) Individuals who believe that they control what happens to them.

Externals (External locus of control) Individuals who believe that what happens to them is controlled by outside forces such as luck or chance.

Self-Monitoring: A personality trait that measures an individual’s ability to adjust his or her behavior to external, situational factors.

Proactive Personality: Identifies opportunities, shows initiative, takes action, and perseveres

until meaningful change occurs. Creates positive change in the environment, regardless or even in spite of constraints or obstacles.

Value: Mode of conduct or end state is personally or socially preferable

Terminal values: desirable end states the goals that a person would like to achieve during his or her lifetime

Instrumental values: the ways/means for achieving one’s terminal values

Value system: A hierarchy based on a ranking of an individual’s values in terms of their intensity

Personality-Job Fit: Theory (Holland): Identifies six personality types and proposes that the fit between personality type and occupational environment determines satisfaction and turnover.

Chapter 6 Perception and individual decision making

Causation judged through:

Distinctiveness: Shows different behaviors in different situations.

Consensus: Response is the same as others to the same situation.

Consistency: Responds in the same way over time

Fundamental Attribution Error: The tendency to underestimate the influence of external factors and overestimate the influence of internal factors when making judgments about the behavior of others.

Self-Serving Bias: The tendency for individuals to attribute their own successes to internal factors while putting the blame for failures on external factors

Selective Perception: People selectively interpret what they see on the basis of their interests, background, experience, and attitudes

Halo Effect: Drawing a general impression about an individual on the basis of a single characteristic

Contrast Effects: Evaluation of a person’s characteristics that are affected by comparisons with other people recently encountered who rank higher or lower on the same characteristics

Stereotyping

Profiling: A form of stereotyping in which members of a group are singled out for intense scrutiny based on a single, often racial, trait.

Employment Interview: Perceptual biases of raters affect the accuracy of interviewers’ judgments of applicants. Formed in a single glance – 1/10 of a second!

Performance Expectations: Self-fulfilling prophecy (Pygmalion effect): The lower or higher performance of employees reflects preconceived leader expectations about employee capabilities

Performance Evaluations: Appraisals are often the subjective (judgmental) perceptions of appraisers of another employee’s job performance. Critical impact on employees

Decision-Making Models

Rational Decision-Making: The “perfect world” model: assumes complete information, all options known, and maximum payoff. Six step decision-making process

Bounded Reality: The “real world” model: seeks satisfactory and sufficient solutions from limited data and alternatives

Intuition: A non-conscious process created from distilled

experience that results in quick decisions

Relies on holistic associations

Affectively charged – engaging the emotions

Common Biases and Errors

Overconfidence Bias: Believing too much in our own ability to make good decisions – especially when outside of own expertise

Anchoring Bias: Using early, first received information as the basis for making subsequent judgments

Confirmation Bias: Selecting and using only facts that support our decision

Availability Bias: Emphasizing information that is most readily at hand

Recent

Vivid

Escalation of Commitment: Increasing commitment to a decision in spite of evidence that it is wrong – especially if responsible for the decision!

Randomness Error: Creating meaning out of random events - superstitions

Risk aversion: The tendency to prefer a sure gain of a moderate amount over a riskier outcome, even if the riskier outcome might have a higher expected payoff.

Hindsight Bias: After an outcome is already known, believing it could have been accurately predicted beforehand

Chapter 7 Motivation Concepts

Motivation: The processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal.

Hierarchy of Needs Theory: There is a hierarchy of five needs—physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self- actualization; as each need is substantially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant.

Self-Actualization: The drive to become what one is capable of becoming.

Lower-Order Needs: Needs that are satisfied externally; physiological and safety needs.

Higher-Order Needs: Needs that are satisfied internally; social, esteem, and self-actualization needs.

David McClelland’s Theory of needs

Need for Achievement: The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed.

Need for Affiliation: The desire for friendly and close personal relationships.

Need for Power: The need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise.

Cognitive Evaluation Theory: Providing an extrinsic reward for behavior that had been previously only intrinsically rewarding tends to decrease the overall level of motivation.

Management by Objectives (MBO): A program that encompasses specific goals,

participatively set, for an explicit time period, with feedback on goal progress.

Four Ways of increasing Self Efficancy

Enactive Mastery gaining relevant experience with the task of the job

Vicarious Modeling becoming more confident because you see someone else doing the task

Verbal Persuasion becoming more confident because someone convinces you that you have the skills necessary to be successful

Arousal increases self efficacy and it leads to energized state, so the person performs better

Equity Theory: Individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes with those of others and then respond to eliminate any inequities

Types of Justice

Distributive Justice: Perceived fairness of the outcome (the final distribution). “Who got what?”

Procedural Justice: The perceived fairness of the process used to determine the outcome (the final distribution). “How was who gets what

decided?”

Interactional Justice: The degree to which one is treated with dignity and respect. “Was I treated well?”

Chapter 8 Motivation: Form Concepts to applications

Job Characteristics Model (JSM): Identifies five job characteristics and their relationship to personal and work outcomes.

Job design Theory

Skill Variety: The degree to which a job requires a variety of different activities (how may different skills are used in a given day, week, month?).

Task Identity: The degree to which the job requires completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work (from beginning to end).

Task Significance: The degree to which the job has a substantial impact on the lives or work of other people.

Autonomy: The degree to which the job provides substantial freedom and discretion to the individual in scheduling the work and in determining the procedures to be used in carrying it out.

Feedback: The degree to which carrying out the work activities required by a job results in the individual obtaining direct and clear information about the effectiveness of his or her performance.

Job Rotation: The periodic shifting of a worker from one task to another

Job Enrichment: The vertical expansion of jobs, which increases the degree to which worker controls the planning, execution, and evaluation of the work

Flextime: Employees work during a common core time period each day but have discretion in forming their total workday from a flexible set of hours outside the core.

Job Sharing: The practice of having two or more people split a 40- hour-a-week job

Telecommuting: Employees do their work at home at least two days a week on a computer that is linked to their office.

The Virtual Office: Employees work out of their home on a relatively permanent basis.

Typical Telecommuting Jobs

Professional and other knowledge-related tasks

Routine information-handling tasks

Variable pay programs

A portion of an employee’s pay is based on some individual and/or organizational measure of performance

Piece Rate: Workers are paid a fixed sum for each unit of production completed

Merit-Based: Based on performance appraisal ratings. Gap increasing between average and top-performers

Bonuses: Reward employees for recent performance