World Regional Geography: Europe Study Guide

Learning Objectives for European World Regional Geography

• Key Geographic Features: Identify the primary physical and human geographic characteristics of the European continent.
• Industrial Revolution Effects: Explain the ways in which the industrial revolution influenced and reshaped the geographic landscape of Europe.
• Migration Impact: Summarize how historical and modern migration patterns have impacted the European population.
• Migration Controversies: Describe the contemporary debates and controversies surrounding migration into the European region.

European Physical Geography and Boundaries

• Defining Europe: Europe is traditionally defined as the western extremity of the massive landmass known as Eurasia, which sits on a single large tectonic plate.
• Geographic Borders:
  • North: Bordered by the Arctic Ocean.
  • West: Bordered by the Atlantic Ocean and its various seas.
  • South: Bordered by the Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea.
  • East: The eastern boundary is typically defined by the Ural Mountains, which run north to south from the Arctic Ocean through Russia down to Kazakhstan.
• Russia’s Continental Split: The western portion of Russia, including major cities like St. Petersburg and Moscow, is considered part of Europe. The eastern portion is classified as Asia. Western Russia is strikingly similar to Eastern Europe both culturally and physiographically, sharing a common history and significant Russian influence throughout this transition zone.
• Major Mountain Ranges:
  • Southern Alpine Region: The Pyrenees, the Alps, and the Carpathians divide southern Europe from the hilly central uplands.
  • Western Highlands: Includes the Scandinavian Mountains of Norway and Sweden, and the Scottish Highlands.
  • Northern Europe: Characterized primarily by flat lowlands.
• Navigable Waterways: Europe contains a high number of navigable waterways, and most locations are a short distance from the sea. This proximity allowed Europe to dominate maritime travel and establish extensive historical trading links.
• The Danube River: This is the region's largest river, sometimes called the "Blue Danube." It winds for $2,860\,km$ ($1,780\,mi$) through $10$ different countries.
• Climate and the Gulf Stream: Despite its high latitudinal position, Europe is surprisingly temperate. The Gulf Stream transports warm Atlantic waters to the coast, warming the winds that blow across the continent.
  • Comparative Latitude Example: Amsterdam lies at approximately $52^{\circ}N$ latitude, similar to Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada.
  • Temperature Variance: Amsterdam’s average January low is $0.8\,^{\circ}C$ ($33.4\,^{\circ}F$), while Saskatoon’s average January low is $-20.7\,^{\circ}C$ ($-5.3\,^{\circ}F$).
• Relative Location: Europe is situated at the center of the "land hemisphere" (the half of the globe containing most of the land). This central location, paired with navigable water, maximized contact with the rest of the world.
• Interconnectivity: Distances between European countries are relatively small. For example, Paris and London are connected by a high-speed rail trip lasting just over $2$ hours.

Cooperation and Control in Europe

• Ancient Foundations:
  • The Greeks: Provided cultural and political foundations, including ideals of democracy, humanism, and rationalism.
  • The Roman Empire: Left a lasting legacy in architecture, governance, and language. It united the region under Christianity and established a network of roads and trading ports.
• Post-Roman Era: Following the fall of Rome, tribal and ethnic allegiances reemerging, leading to various invasions and migrations.
  • England: Settled by Germanic Anglo-Saxons (origin of the name "Angeln") and later by the Normans.
• Historical Political Landscapes: Two hundred years ago, Greece and Turkey were under the Ottoman Empire, and Italy was a collection of city-states and independent kingdoms. Many modern political boundaries only formed after World War II.
• Urbanization: Today, approximately 75\text{%} of Europeans live in cities. London is the largest city, with about $8.5\,million$ people within its limits.
• Modern Power Transition: While the United Kingdom led the industrialization era, Germany is currently the dominant force in terms of population, size, and Gross Domestic Product (GDP).
• The European Union (EU):
  • Development: Roots lie in the Benelux Economic Union ($1944$) between Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg. Economic cooperation expanded in $1957$ to include France, Italy, and West Germany.
  • Establishment: The EU was formally created in $1993$, currently consisting of $27$ member countries.
  • The Eurozone: Refers to the $19$ member states that use the euro as their official currency.
  • Brexit: The United Kingdom finalized its withdrawal from the EU in January $2020$.
• Schengen Agreement: Signed in the $1990s$, this agreement essentially created a single territory for entry by abolishing internal border checks and establishing a common visa system.
• Sovereignty: Defined as a country’s independence in making economic, political, or legal decisions. Joining a supranational organization like the EU involves giving up some sovereignty in exchange for benefits like easier trade or shared military resources.
• Devolution: Occurs when regions within a state seek greater autonomy.
  • Example: The $2014$ Scottish independence referendum was narrowly defeated but resulted in increased autonomy for Scotland.
• Balkanization: A term referring to the tendency of territories to break up into smaller, often hostile units.
  • Yugoslavia: Formed after World War I from territories previously under Ottoman control. Under dictator Joseph Broz Tito, ethnic allegiances were suppressed for national unity.
  • 1990s Conflicts: Led by Slobodan Milošević, a genocidal campaign targeted Croats, Bosnians, and Albanians. In Bosnia, over $8,000$ Muslim men and boys were killed.
  • Kosovo: Declared independence from Serbia in $2008$ ($still contested$).
  • North Macedonia: Changed its name from the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia in February $2019$ to resolve a dispute with Greece.
• Economic Disparity: A sharp divide exists between Western and Eastern Europe.
  • 2017 GDP per capita (World Bank): Germany was $44,470\,USD$; Moldova was $2,290\,USD$.

The Industrial Revolution

• Definition: Refers to the profound changes in manufacturing that occurred in the late $18\text{th}$ and early $19\text{th}$ centuries.
• Cottage Industries: Pre-industrial manufacturing where individual workers made unique goods (clothing, candles) in their homes part-time to supplement farm income.
• Key Invention: James Watt’s steam engine, which entered production in $1775$. This allowed machines to replace human and animal labor.
• Iron Production Loop: Steam engines enabled better iron production through steady heat; this improved iron was then used to build even more efficient steam engines.
• The Agrarian Revolution: Occurred alongside industrial changes (mid-$1750s$), applying scientific reasoning to farming.
  • Innovations: Mechanized equipment, improved fertilizers, crop rotation, and complementary planting.
  • Shift to Commercial Agriculture: Transition from subsistence agriculture (farming for family consumption) to commercial agriculture (selling excess crops for profit).
• Urbanization Impact: Improved farming techniques allowed for more food with less labor, creating an agricultural surplus and freeing workers to move to cities for factory jobs.
  • English Urbanization Stats: England's urban population grew from 17\text{%} at the start of the $19\text{th}$ century to 54\text{%} by the end of it.
• Colonialism: European control was boosted by industrial economic and military power. The British Empire became the largest in history, covering 20\text{%} of the world population by the start of World War I.
• French Revolution (1789–1799 CE): Ended the monarchy, established a republic, and laid the foundation for modern separation of church and state.
• Economic Specialization: Europe’s core area remains centered around manufacturing regions established during the Industrial Revolution near raw materials like coal.
  • Examples: Northern Italy specializes in textiles; Germany specializes in automotive manufacturing.
• Economies of Scale: Defined as the savings in cost per unit that result from increasing production.

European Migration

• Geographic Definitions:
  • Migration: A permanent move from one place to another.
  • Intrareogional Migration: Movement within a particular region (e.g., rural-to-urban shifts during the Industrial Revolution).
  • Interregional Migration: Movement between different regions (e.g., Europe to North America).
• Push and Pull Factors:
  • Push Factors: Compel movement from a current location (e.g., lack of jobs, political turmoil).
  • Pull Factors: Entice movement to a new location (e.g., job availability, religious freedom).
• The Jewish Diaspora: Historical movement after various conquests of Judea.
  • Diaspora: A group of people living outside their ancestral homeland.
  • History: After the Roman destruction of the Second Temple in $70\,CE$, many Jews moved to Europe, where they often faced anti-Semitism and were forced to live in neighborhoods called ghettos.
• The Holocaust: A European genocide by the Nazi regime that killed $6\,million$ Jews (out of a pre-war population of $9\,million$), along with Poles, Soviets, and others. Post-war, many emigrated to the state of Israel.
• Modern Migration Patterns:
  • About half of all European migrants come from other European countries (often East to West following the Schengen Agreement).
  • Immigrants from North Africa and Southwest Asia represent about 12\text{%} of European migrants, often driven by political conflict and limited jobs.

Shifting National Identities

• Definitions of Identity:
  • State: A sovereign political area.
  • Nation: A group with a distinct ethnic and cultural identity.
  • Nation-state: A state dominated by a single, homogeneous ethnic group (e.g., Poland is 93\text{%} ethnically Polish; Iceland is 92\text{%} Icelandic).
• Nationalism: The feeling of political unity within a territory, inspired by flags, anthems, and symbols.
• Fascism: An extreme form of nationalism involving an authoritarian leader and a one-party state, often blaming minority groups for economic or military failures.
• Forces of Unity and Division:
  • Centrifugal Forces: Threaten national unity by dividing a state (e.g., religious differences, linguistic barriers).
  • Centripetal Forces: Promote national unity (e.g., common religion, strong infrastructure, common enemies).
• Secularization: The transformation from countries with strong religious values to a nonreligious society.
  • Sweden Example: Membership in the Church of Sweden dropped from over 80\text{%} in $2000$ to 64.6\text{%} by $2014$. Only 18\text{%} of Swedes claim to believe in a personal God.
• Philosophical Shifts:
  • Humanism: An emphasis on the value of human beings and reason.
  • Secularism: Exclusion of religious ideologies from public or government activities.
• Social Welfare Programs: Many Western European countries use universal healthcare and higher education as centripetal forces to unify the citizenry and prevent extreme poverty.

Current Migration Patterns and Debates

• Religious Demographics:
  • Muslim Population: Was about 6\text{%} of Europe in $2010$; expected to reach 10\text{%} by $2050$.
  • Christian Population: Was nearly 75\text{%} in $2010$; expected to drop to 65\text{%} by $2050$.
• Public Opinion: Europeans are divided on immigration.
  • Oppose Immigration: 69\text{%} in the UK and 84\text{%} in Greece (a "gateway" country) want decreased levels.
  • Support/Neutral: A majority in Northern European countries want levels to stay the same or increase.
• Refugee Crisis: The Syrian civil war caused a massive influx in $2014$ and $2015$. In $2015$, a record $65.3\,million$ people were displaced globally.
• Asylum Seekers: Refugees seeking sanctuary from oppression. While they represent only about 0.5\text{%} of Europe's population, their presence sparks debates over national identity.
• Deindustrialization: The shift from heavy manufacturing to service and high-tech industries. This often leads to highly-educated locals moving to cities, while immigrants move into small towns to take labor-intensive jobs, visibly changing the local cultural landscape.
• Economic Impact of Refugees: Refugee populations often have lower unemployment than native populations and can provide a long-term economic boost by increasing the labor force in regions with declining populations.