Notes on The Atlantic World: Towns and Lima (Sixteenth–Seventeenth Century)

The Towns and Urban Structure in the Americas (Late Sixteenth Century)

  • Realms and urban society

    • Spanish attempts to reduce dispersed Indian hamlets into towns to tax and control native populations; towns organized around a central plaza (plaza mayor).
    • Indian society became profoundly rural and village-centered; local leaders (caciques in the Indies, curacas in the Andes) served as intermediaries for Spanish authority.
    • Spaniards viewed Indians as intellectually inferior but capable of learning; colonial law was paternalistic.
    • By the 1570s, roughly 125,000≤NSpaniards≤150,000125{,}000 \le N_{Spaniards} \le 150{,}000 Spaniards lived in the Indies across ~225225 towns/cities.
    • Urban spaces were conceptualized as foreign islands within a vast native landscape.

  • Urban form and elite life in the central towns

    • Towns in New Spain and Peru were urban centers around a central plaza, facing key public buildings: church, municipal hall, and prison.
    • Towns exercised jurisdiction well into the surrounding countryside.
    • The principal cities housed universities, theaters, cathedrals, churches, and viceregal courts, forming a colonial elite.
    • The first corregidor of Mexico was praised in a verse letter for offering everything found in Spain plus many additional things.
    • Lima (La Ciudad de los Reyes) is used as a prime example of the urban model and social hierarchy.

  • The social framework and daily life in colonial towns

    • Cities contained a social economy organized around religious, judicial, and commercial life.
    • The church and its institutions dominated daily life, shaping ceremonies, fiestas, and education.
    • By contrast, city governance rested on a cabildo (city council) and regidores; two alcaldes (municipal magistrates) were elected from leading citizens.
    • Lima and other cities fostered a dense religious establishment (cathedrals, monasteries, convents) and a robust educational apparatus (universities, colleges).
    • Lima’s social fabric included a large enslaved population of Africans; the relative presence of mestizos, natives, and Spaniards reflected complex racial and social hierarchies.

  • Educational and cultural infrastructure (typical for major towns)

    • Universities in principal cities educated colonial elites and supported theaters and churches.
    • San Marcos University (Lima) and other institutions formed centers of learning in the Americas.

  • The guiding document: Royal Ordinances Concerning the Laying Out of New Towns (1573)

    • Purpose: to design new settlements with planned grids to facilitate growth, taxation, and defense.
    • Selection criteria for new towns:
    • Site must be vacant and non-harmful to Indians; consent of natives should be obtained.
    • An outline plan of squares, streets, and building lots is created with cord and ruler, beginning with the main square.
    • Site requirements (in general terms):
    • Elevation, healthfulness, fortification potential, fertile land for farming/pasturage, fuel and timber, fresh water, native population, accessibility, and protection from winds; avoid proximity to unhealthy lagoons or marshes when near the coast.
    • The plaza and city layout (coastal vs inland):
    • For sea-coast towns, the main plaza is near the port’s landing place; inland towns center the plaza and shape it oblong to facilitate festivals (e.g., equestrian events).
    • Plaza size and proportions:
    • The plaza shall not be smaller than 200 ft200\ \text{ft} wide and 300 ft300\ \text{ft} long, nor larger than 800 ft800\ \text{ft} long and 300 ft300\ \text{ft} wide.
    • A mid-sized, recommended plaza is L=600 ft, W=400 ftL = 600\ \text{ft},\ W = 400\ \text{ft} where L is length and W is width.
    • Growth considerations: the plaza must accommodate future town growth; its size is tied to the expected number of residents.
    • Proportions: the length should be at least one and a half times the width, i.e. \frac{L}{W} \ge \tfrac{3}{2}.$n
    • The four main streets from the plaza
    • From the plaza’s corners, four principal streets diverge; eight streets converge at the plaza from its four corners.
    • Streets should end at corners so that sidewalks are not obstructed by arcade structures; arcades provide pedestrian protection and convenience for visitors.
    • Public buildings and layout around the plaza
    • Building lots surrounding the plaza are reserved first for the main church, and for the Royal and Town Council House, the Custom-House, and the Arsenal, which are to be placed near the church and port.
    • A hospital for the poor and the sick (non-contagious diseases) is built next to the church, forming part of its cloister.
    • No private lots around the plaza are for private individuals initially; the plan prioritizes church, royal, and commercial/public buildings.
    • Distribution of lots and finances
    • Remaining lots are allotted by lottery to settlers who are entitled to build around the plaza; leftovers go to future settlers or are disposed of by royal prerogative.
    • Entries for lot assignments are recorded with a town plan in advance; settlers bear costs for public buildings via a moderate tax on merchandise.
    • Uniformity and growth
    • Settlers are urged to make structures uniform for aesthetic unity and beauty.
    • Larger context
    • These ordinances were part of a broader royal decree “Ordinances concerning discoveries, settlements, and pacification,” issued from the Escorial.
    • The ordinances were rediscovered by Zelia Nuttall in Madrid and published in Spanish and English; translated later for scholarly use.

  • Lima as a case study of urban planning and social order

    • Lima’s layout mirrored the general Spanish grid-inspired Renaissance planning.
    • Central hub: Plaza de Armas with eight outward streets; nearby were the cathedral, viceregal palace, and the archbishop’s residence.
    • The city’s spatial organization demonstrated social prestige; two-story houses surrounded the Plaza de Armas.
    • Lima’s public architecture and layout were described as orderly and rational, intended to reflect European urban ideals in the Americas.

  • Lima in the 16th–17th centuries: population, wealth, and religious life

    • Population trajectory:
    • 1593: ~13{,}000 inhabitants.
    • 1614: ~25{,}454 inhabitants.
    • Ethnic composition (late 16th–early 17th c.):
    • Africans: ~10{,}386; formed the largest single ethnic group; with mulattoes, total > 11{,}000.
    • Spaniards: ~9{,}616.
    • Native Andeans: ~1{,}978.
    • Mestizos: ~192.
    • Wealth and commerce: Lima was a major economic hub, benefiting from the global silver trade (notably from Potosí) controlled and distributed through Lima.
    • The religious establishment and social control:
    • More than 400 secular priests and about 900 friars; a vast religious establishment.
    • Approximately 1,366 nuns lived in monasteries, nunneries, and religious houses.
    • Lima contained extensive religious infrastructure: cathedral, multiple churches, monasteries, nunneries, the Inquisition facilities, and hospitals.
    • Notable religious and educational institutions:
    • Cathedral and archbishop’s palace; royal audiencia; viceroy’s palace.
    • University of San Marcos established in 1551.
    • The first printing press in 1584.
    • Doctrinal school for Indians; Jesuit College of San Martín with >500 students; House of Charity for poor and sheltered women; numerous other religious and charitable institutions.
    • Urban symbolism of wealth and governance:
    • The Plaza de Armas was the focal point of political and social life, surrounded by the most prestigious buildings and churches.
    • Descriptions compare Lima to Genoa, Rome, Milan, Florence, Venice, and Bologna to convey its wealth, religious grandeur, and urban sophistication.
    • Contemporary impressions and critiques:
    • Buenaventura de Salinas y Córdoba praised Lima’s magnificence in grand, cosmopolitan terms.
    • The city’s wealth was tied to ecclesiastical and royal salaries and the broader Spanish imperial economy.
    • Everyday life in Lima:
    • Regular Te Deums (religious services) and processions directed daily life and public ceremonies.
    • Inquisitorial activity, weddings, funerals, saints’ days, and regular worship structured social rhythms.
    • Diaries from observers like Josephe de Mugaburu emphasize the dominance of church life and its social authority.
    • Social dynamics and urban identity:
    • The “city within a city” concept (e.g., San Francisco complex) housed a large religious and social workforce, including monks, nuns, novices, slaves, and lay staff; religious houses were major social actors and landholders.
    • The broader Atlantic world context:
    • Lima’s wealth and structure were emblematic of how European urban models were transplanted to the Americas and integrated with imperial extraction, religious authority, and colonial governance.

  • Key themes and implications

    • Spatial planning as political power: the grid, central plaza, and landmark buildings encoded authority and social order in colonial towns.
    • Reduction and control: the conversion of dispersed indigenous settlements into regulated towns enabled taxation, mobilization, and surveillance.
    • Paternalism and race: a hierarchy that combined legal status with racialization shaped everyday life, labor, and social mobility.
    • Economic extraction and urban form: cities like Lima centralized wealth, religious patronage, and administrative power, linking global silver flows to urban growth.
    • Cultural transfer and continuity: Renaissance planning ideas traveled to the Americas, producing hybrid urban forms that mirrored European ideals yet responded to local conditions and colonial needs.

  • Formulas and numerical references (for quick study)

    • Population and urbanization (Indies, 1570s): N{Spaniards} \approx 1.25\times 10^5 \text{ to } 1.50\times 10^5; \ N{towns} \approx 225.
    • Plaza size conventions (1573 Ordinances):
    • Minimums: W{min} = 200\ \text{ft},\ L{min} = 300\ \text{ft}.
    • Maximums: W{max} = 300\ \text{ft},\ L{max} = 800\ \text{ft}.
    • Recommended: L = 600\ \text{ft},\ W = 400\ \text{ft}.
    • Proportional rule: \frac{L}{W} \ge \frac{3}{2}.
    • Lima population milestones: P{1593} \approx 13{,}000; \ P{1614} \approx 25{,}454.
    • Ethnic composition (late 16th–early 17th c.): Africans \approx 10{,}386; Spaniards \approx 9{,}616; native Andeans \approx 1{,}978; mestizos \approx 192.
    • Religious and educational institutions (counts): secular priests >400;\ friars \approx 900;\ nuns \approx 1{,}366;\ University of San Marcos established 1551; first printing press 1584.

  • Connections to broader themes

    • The urban planning rules reflect Renaissance ideals adapted to frontier contexts, illustrating how European conceptions of order, beauty, and public life were transplanted to the Americas.
    • The social and economic fabric shows how church, state, and commerce were integrated to govern vast colonial territories.
    • The accounts highlight both admiration for wealth and anxiety about dependence on imperial structures, revealing tensions at the heart of colonial governance.

  • Notable terms to remember

    • plaza mayor, corregidor, caciques, curacas, cabildo, viceregal, Plaza de Armas, San Marcos University, Inquisition, House of Charity, Doctrinal School, arcades, arcades as protective pedestrian walkways, Royal and Town Council House, Arsenal, Custom-House.

  • Examples and metaphors used in the text

    • Lima described as a city where a single square served as a hub from which a web of eight radiating streets organized social life; the comparison to Genoa, Rome, Milan, Venice, Bologna conveyed the cosmopolitan wealth and architectural ambition of the city.
    • A “city within the city” concept (monasteries, convents, and religious houses forming a parallel social universe faced with political authority and social control.