The Progressive Era Presidents and Constitutional Reforms

The Constitutional Amendments of the Progressive Era

The Progressive Era led to the ratification of four major amendments to the United States Constitution, each addressing specific social, economic, or political issues.

• The $16\text{th}$ Amendment ($1913$)

  • Description: This amendment gives the federal government the legal right to collect income taxes.

  • Problems Addressed: It addresses economic inequality and the belief that the wealthy were not paying their fair share of the nation's financial burden.

  • Why it was an Amendment: Reformers believed that only the federal government was strong enough to effectively control big business.

• The $17\text{th}$ Amendment ($1913$)

  • Description: This amendment provides the people with the right to directly elect $U.S.$ Senators.

  • Problems Addressed: It targets political corruption and the need for citizens to have a more direct say in their government.

  • Why it was an Amendment: As the Senate is a component of the federal government, a constitutional change was necessary to alter its election process.

• The $18\text{th}$ Amendment ($1919$)

  • Description: This amendment prohibits the manufacture and sale of alcohol throughout the country.

  • Problems Addressed: It addresses social concerns, specifically the belief that alcohol is harmful to society and serves as a primary cause of poverty.

  • Why it was an Amendment: Alcohol abuse was viewed as a national problem that could not be resolved purely by state or local legislation.

• The $19\text{th}$ Amendment ($1920$)

  • Description: This amendment grants women the right to vote, also known as suffrage.

  • Problems Addressed: It addresses social and political gender inequality and the existence of a male-dominated government.

  • Why it was an Amendment: Suffrage was recognized as a national issue and followed the legal precedent established by the $15\text{th}$ Amendment.

Overview of Progressive Presidential Reform Goals

Throughout their respective tenures, Theodore Roosevelt, William Howard Taft, and Woodrow Wilson worked to implement Progressive aims within national politics. Their central priorities were:

• Ending Monopolies: Targeting large corporations that underpaid their workers and shut out market competition.

• Strengthening Federal Power: Enhancing the federal government's regulatory capabilities and its power over the banking sector.

• Increasing Direct Democracy: Expanding democratic participation, though this was primarily focused on white Americans.

Theodore Roosevelt’s "Square Deal" Agenda

Theodore Roosevelt (TR) actively championed an agenda he termed the "Square Deal," which was structured around the "Three Cs":

• Control of Corporations: Roosevelt advocated for "fair play" in politics, which he defined as providing equal opportunity for all.

• Conservation of Natural Resources: He prioritized the enhanced preservation of the nation's natural environment.

• Consumer Protection: He pushed for regulation to protect consumers from the dangers of contaminated or hazardous food and medicine.

Trust-Busting and Industrial Regulation Under T. Roosevelt

• Anti-Trust Actions: Roosevelt approved a total of $25$ anti-trust suits during his presidency. He broke up several massive and highly profitable companies to combat monopolies, including:

  • Northern Securities: The transportation empire owned by J.P. Morgan, which controlled railroads and steamships.

  • Standard Oil: The massive oil empire of John Rockefeller.

  • American Tobacco Co.: A dominant cigarette monopoly.

• The Hepburn Act ($1906$): Following a major victory in his second term, Roosevelt secured the passage of the Hepburn Act, which allowed the federal Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) to set freight rates for railroads.

Consumer Protection and the Food and Drug Industries

• Impact of "The Jungle": Upton Sinclair’s book, The Jungle, exposed the horrific conditions of Chicago meat plants. It detailed how plants sold product as "Grade A" meat that actually contained:

  • Rancid meat.

  • Rats and bread specifically laced with rat poison.

  • Rat dung.

• Regulatory Legislation: In response to these revelations, Roosevelt pushed Congress to pass two significant laws in $1906$:

  • Meat Inspection Act ($1906$): Required the Department of Agriculture to inspect all meat intended for inter-state commerce.

  • Pure Food & Drug Act ($1906$): Prohibited the sale of misbranded or adulterated food products.

Conservation of Natural Resources

• Preservation Goals: As a lifelong nature lover, Roosevelt sought to preserve "wild places" for the benefit of future generations.

• Professional Management: He appointed Gifford Pinchot, the first professionally-trained forest manager in the nation, to oversee the management of $U.S.$ natural resources.

• Extent of Protection: Roosevelt is credited with protecting more than $234\,\text{million}$ acres of land.

Racial Perspectives and Social Exclusion

• Exclusionary Progressive Ideology: For Theodore Roosevelt and many other Progressives, the phrase "the people" referred specifically to white people. This definition excluded African Americans, Native Americans, and certain immigrant groups, such as those from Southern Europe.

• Beliefs on Race: Roosevelt believed that Black people were "inferior" to white people.

• Engagement with Leaders: While Roosevelt once met with Booker T. Washington, he eventually succumbed to public criticism and ceased further meetings with Black leaders.

The Presidency of William Howard Taft

• Leadership Style: In contrast to Theodore Roosevelt, William Howard Taft was viewed as neither bullish, nor charismatic, nor innovative.

• Administrative Challenges: Taft’s presidency was often negatively compared to Roosevelt's, leading to a difficult political tenure.

• Tariff Issues: Taft failed to deliver on the promises he made regarding tariff reform.

• Relationship with Roosevelt: The personal friendship between Taft and Roosevelt eventually deteriorated due to various policy disagreements and political disputes.

Woodrow Wilson’s "New Freedom" Policies

Woodrow Wilson introduced a policy known as "New Freedom," which focused on eliminating trusts rather than simply regulating them.

• Economic Reform: Wilson passed the Underwood-Simmons Tariff ($1913$), which lowered tariffs to their lowest levels since the Civil War, reducing the average rate from $40\,\%$ to $25\,\%$.

• The First Income Tax: Wilson introduced the nation’s first income tax, although only $1\,\%$ of Americans had high enough incomes to be required to pay it.

• The Federal Reserve Act ($1913$): This established a new national banking system intended to ensure a stable currency and maintain the integrity of member banks.

• Federal Trade Commission ($1914$): This agency was created to monitor and regulate unfair trade practices.

Questions & Discussion

• Warm-up/Predict: Who do you think was most responsible for enacting reform during the Progressive era – the people or the government?

• Revisit: After studying the era, who do you think was most responsible for enacting reform during the Progressive era – the people or the government? Provide specific examples to support your claim.

Progressive Reform Quarter Project

• Project Access: Students are directed to log into mySAA and select the "Progressive Reform Project Information Sheet" for full details regarding the requirements of the Quarter Project.

• Progressive Era: A period of social and political reform in the United States during the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

• 16th Amendment (1913): Authorized federal income tax to address economic inequality.

• 17th Amendment (1913): Provided for the direct election of U.S. Senators.

• 18th Amendment (1919): Prohibited the manufacture and sale of alcohol (Prohibition).

• 19th Amendment (1920): Granted women the right to vote (suffrage).

• Theodore Roosevelt: President known for the "Square Deal" agenda focusing on control of corporations, conservation of natural resources, and consumer protection.

• William Howard Taft: Roosevelt's successor, known for administrative challenges and tariff issues.

• Woodrow Wilson: Introduced "New Freedom" policies aimed at eliminating trusts and reducing tariffs.

• The Jungle: Book by Upton Sinclair that exposed poor conditions in the meatpacking industry, leading to regulatory reforms.