Study Notes on Political Systems and Governance

Political systems in modern democracies are structured to prevent power from concentrating in a single individual.
- The main goal of the modern state is to divide power among various individuals or institutions.
- Historically, monarchs were the singular rulers in Western history and similar roles existed globally (e.g., emperors in China).

Understanding terms like "state" and "government" is crucial for clarity in political discussions.
- State: Refers to the entity that possesses the authority to govern.
- Government: Refers to the administrative execution of laws made by the legislative body.
Decisions made by the state typically originate from laws adopted by parliament (legislative) and are executed by the government (executive).
Major powers of the state include:
- Legislative Power (Parliament / Legislature)
- Executive Power (Government)
- Judicial Power (Courts / Judiciary)

The division of power is not novel; it existed in the Roman Republic approximately 2500 years ago.
- However, the specific forms of power distribution in the Roman Republic differed from modern systems.

**Parliamentary Systems: **
- Can be unicameral (one chamber) or bicameral (two chambers).
- Unicameral referred to as monocameral.
- Examples of unicameral legislatures include the legislative assembly of Nova Scotia.
- Bicameral examples include:
  - Canada: House of Commons (lower house) and Senate (upper house).
  - UK: House of Commons and House of Lords.
  - Israel: Unique example of a unicameral parliament.

The executive power can operate under different structures:
- Single Executive: One person (e.g., a president) leads the executive branch.
- Dual Executive: Involves both a head of state (symbol of unity) and a head of government (chief executive).
Flexibility within the parliamentary system allows members of the legislature to be part of the executive (often called a flexible division of power).

On election day, parties win seats, and the party with the most seats forms the government; its leader becomes prime minister.
The prime minister appoints cabinet members, often drawing from both chambers of parliament, enhancing executive-legislative interaction.
- This feature allows for higher efficiency in government operations.

The party in government holds significant power, especially if it has a majority in the legislature:
- Members are usually expected to vote in unison according to party lines (party discipline).
The legislative process includes:
- Proposing bills
- Debating bills
- Amending bills
Decision-making structure includes:
- Bills must pass through several readings (first reading, second reading, and third reading).
- After passing both houses, bills are sent to the governor-general for Royal Assent.

The House of Commons proposes, debates, and amends bills.
Amendments are common as bills undergo reviews.
The attendance and vote process may involve specified quorum requirements for decisions to be made.

Each chamber (House of Commons and Senate) conducts their own readings and procedures for bills:
- Each reading provides opportunities for debate and amendments.
- After the final reading and agreement by both houses, the bill proceeds to the governor-general for approval.

The Canadian Senate has 105 members appointed on the recommendation of the prime minister; they serve until the age of 75.
There are debates about the accountability and efficacy of the appointed Senate:
- Issues related to attendance and performance are ongoing controversies.
Quorum indicates the minimum number of senators or members needed to conduct official business.

Legislative work often occurs in smaller committees instead of full chamber meetings:
- High-profile committees include the finance, foreign affairs, and environment committees.
Committees conduct line-by-line analyses and consult experts on relevant topics.
After testimonies and discussions, committee drafts reach the broader legislative assembly for further consideration.

The Prime Minister is a central figure but does not have a specific legal definition; the cabinet is collectively the government.
The governor-general's role, deriving from the British monarch, ties Canadian governance historically to imperial roots.
The Prime Minister has the authority to prorogue parliament under specific circumstances, often brought about by political conflict or minority governance instability.

Acts as the highest judicial authority, with nine justices who decide on constitutional and administrative matters.
The Prime Minister has control over judicial appointments but typically avoids appointing judges with strong ideological biases to maintain judicial impartiality.
The Supreme Court can assess the constitutionality of laws and is also a reference point for advisors on legislation.
Controversies associated with the Supreme Court often center on ideological interpretations of laws, potential biases in decision-making, and the balance of cultural representation.