Developmental Psychology: Kohlberg, Erikson, and Adulthood
Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development (Review and Example)
The Heinz Dilemma Recap: A woman is sick, and her husband, Heinz, needs to buy a drug for her that costs more than he can afford ( raised vs. higher cost of drug). The dilemma asks if he should steal the drug.
Levels of Moral Reasoning: Kohlberg posits that the reasoning behind a decision, not the decision itself, determines one's stage of moral development.
Preconventional Level: This stage is self-centered, focusing solely on how a decision will affect the individual in terms of rewards and punishments.
Reasoning (Not steal): "You shouldn't steal because you're going to get in trouble for it. It doesn't matter anything deeper than that. I don't want to get caught or have bad things happen to me."
Reasoning (Steal): "I need the drug to save my life, or the life of this person important to me. I'm going to steal the drug because of how this decision affects me or my interests/needs." (Self-interest is the motivator).
Conventional Level: At this stage, individuals prioritize rules and laws to maintain social order.
Reasoning (Not steal): "They wouldn't steal because it's illegal. It's against the law to steal, so I'm going to follow the rules."
Postconventional Level: This is the highest level, where personal morals and values transcend societal rules and laws, focusing on universal ethical principles.
Reasoning (Steal): "The needs of the wife, saving a life in a life-or-death situation, that's more important than the rules and the laws. He's probably going to steal the drug because a higher principle (saving a life) means more than just following the rules."
Reasoning (Not steal): "If my personal morals are that stealing is always wrong, that there's no other way I can explain this, and my values are 'black and white' regarding stealing, then I'm not going to steal, no matter the circumstances. My own personal morality is more important than what the laws say."
Adolescence: Biological Changes (Puberty)
Adolescence marks the transition stage from childhood to adulthood.
Puberty: This is the biological process of the body developing and changing from childhood into adulthood, primarily fueled by hormones. The fundamental goal of puberty is to enable individuals to reproduce.
Adolescent Growth Spurt: A period of very rapid increase in height and weight for adolescents, also driven by hormones. This can occur quickly, seemingly "almost overnight." It's the second most rapid period of growth in life, after infancy.
Primary Sex Characteristics: These are the bodily structures that are directly involved in reproduction. During puberty, changes in these characteristics directly impact the ability to reproduce.
For girls, this includes the onset of menstruation (their first period).
For boys, this includes ejaculation.
Secondary Sex Characteristics: These are all the other physical changes that occur during puberty but are not directly involved in reproduction. These are often described as the "awkward stuff."
Examples include the development of facial hair, pubic hair, increased sweat production, increased fat deposits, breast development, and changes in voice.
Psychological Impact: There's an evolutionary irony where, during adolescence, individuals cognitively believe everyone is evaluating and judging them, leading to self-consciousness, while simultaneously their bodies are undergoing visible, often "awkward", and asynchronous changes (e.g., one breast growing faster than the other). This makes adolescence a particularly challenging developmental stage.
Erik Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development
Lifespan Perspective: Erikson's theory was groundbreaking in that it extended the concept of psychological development throughout the entire lifespan, unlike previous theories like Piaget's, which ended around adolescence (formal operational stage at age ).
Psychosocial Crisis: At each stage of development, individuals face a core psychosocial crisis or main developmental task. Successfully resolving this crisis allows for healthy progression to the next stage. Difficulties at one stage can impact subsequent development.
Stages of Development:
1. Trust vs. Mistrust ( year):
Goal: Survival (eating, sleeping, basic needs met).
Successful Resolution: When a baby's needs (e.g., hunger, diaper change) are consistently met by caregivers, they develop a sense of trust in others and the world.
Unsuccessful Resolution: Inconsistent or unmet needs lead to a sense of mistrust.
2. Autonomy vs. Doubt (Second year):
Goal: Developing self-control and a sense of independence.
Successful Resolution: The child begins to trust their own ability to accomplish tasks and care for themselves (e.g., trying to tie shoes). This is about internal self-trust, distinct from external trust in others.
Unsuccessful Resolution: Over-criticism or lack of opportunity to try things leads to self-doubt.
3. Initiative vs. Guilt ( years; Preschool):
Goal: Taking initiative, exploring, and doing things independently.
Successful Resolution: Children are encouraged to try new things and make their own decisions, fostering a sense of purpose and initiative.
Unsuccessful Resolution: If constantly criticized or punished for attempts to take initiative, they may develop guilt.
4. Industry vs. Inferiority (Six years to Puberty; Elementary Age):
Goal: Learning new information, developing skills (academic, sports, hobbies).
Successful Resolution: Children feel a sense of accomplishment in their achievements, fostering industry.
Unsuccessful Resolution: Feeling inadequate or struggling leads to a sense of inferiority.
5. Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence):
Goal: Forming a coherent sense of self, understanding who one is, what one believes, and where one fits in the world.
Process: Adolescents "try on" different identities (e.g., varying friend groups, styles of dress, music tastes, social media personas).
Successful Resolution: Developing a stable identity, having clarity about values, beliefs, and future paths (e.g., college majors).
Unsuccessful Resolution: Role confusion, leading to uncertainty about oneself, adopting beliefs of current peer groups, or feeling lost about one's place and purpose.
Cognitive Connection: This period aligns with Piaget's formal operational stage, where abstract reasoning develops, making sense of a time when "everything is a big deal" due to the large task of self-discovery.
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (Early Adulthood):
Goal: Forming deep, committed, and meaningful relationships with others.
Successful Resolution: Establishing trusting commitments with others, which can include marriage (historically), close friends, family members, or even roommates. These relationships provide support during good and bad times.
Unsuccessful Resolution: Feeling isolated, disconnected, and unable to form close bonds.
7. Generativity vs. Self-Absorption (Middle Adulthood):
Goal: Contributing to society, guiding the next generation, and feeling a sense of purpose beyond oneself (e.g., career building, raising children).
Successful Resolution: Feeling satisfied with one's contributions, decisions, and overall impact on the world.
Unsuccessful Resolution: Feeling stuck, unfulfilled, or overly focused on personal needs (self-absorption).
8. Integrity vs. Despair (Late Adulthood):
Goal: Reflecting on one's life and feeling a sense of satisfaction or regret.
Successful Resolution: Looking back on life with a sense of fulfillment, having accomplished desired goals, and leaving the world better than one found it (integrity).
Unsuccessful Resolution: Experiencing regrets, wishing for different choices, and feeling despair about life not lived to its potential.
Critiques of Erikson's Theory:
Individual Differences: The theory may not fully account for variations among individuals due to neurodiversity, gender identity, racial background, or unique life experiences (intersectionality). Theories offer frameworks but cannot explain every unique person.
Binary Outcomes & Linearity: Life pathways are complex, not simply "favorable vs. unfavorable." The theory might imply a fixed, linear progression, but individuals can revisit and work through earlier stages of development throughout their lives. Identity formation, for example, is not solely confined to adolescence.
Cultural Bias: Erikson's theory is notably based on a Western, white male perspective. The emphasis on individual exploration in stages like Identity vs. Role Confusion is a "very Western concept." In more collectivist cultures (e.g., Asian backgrounds), there might be less individualistic exploration as family or group input heavily influences choices like career or marriage. Adolescence may be the first time an individual recognizes the influence of their culture.
Subsequent Research: While not followed specifically as Erikson intended, his theory has stimulated extensive scholarly research, particularly in areas like racial identity development, gender identity development, and sexual orientation development, which are recognized as processes continuing throughout the lifespan, not just in adolescence.
Adulthood: Biopsychosocial Model
Adulthood is typically broken down into early, middle, and late stages.
Biological (Physical) Changes:
Early Declines (): Physical decline can begin as early as the twenties, affecting eyesight and hearing (especially higher frequencies). Muscle mass, heart rate, and lung capacity also start to decrease.
Subtlety: These declines are very subtle and slow, generally not noticeable unless one is an Olympic or professional athlete operating at peak performance.
Thirties & Beyond: In the thirties, mild changes like feeling out of breath from stairs might become more apparent.
Counteracting Decline: Physical activity is crucial. The more physically active one remains, the less physical and cognitive decline is experienced. Research shows that elderly people engaging in light exercise (e.g., daily walks) experience fewer memory and cognitive problems.
Psychological (Life Transitions) Changes:
Marriage:
Correlation: Married individuals tend to live longer and experience fewer chronic illnesses and emergency room visits.
Correlation vs. Causation: This is a correlation, not causation. Marriage doesn't make one healthier. Healthier people might be more likely to marry, or other factors might be at play.
Gender Disparity: Positive health outcomes for heterosexual men in marriage are often greater than for women because a spouse might encourage preventive care and medication adherence.
Quality Matters: Unhealthy marriages are detrimental and can be worse for health than being alone.
Child Rearing:
Temporary Dip: There is a well-documented temporary dip in happiness, life satisfaction, and marital satisfaction after babies are born, mainly due to sleep deprivation and adjusting to new roles.
Return to Baseline: Similar to other major life transitions (e.g., winning the lottery, developing a physical disability), individuals typically "bounce back to baseline" happiness levels.
Money and Happiness (Lottery Example):
Temporary Spike/Dip: While lottery winners experience a temporary happiness spike, many eventually become depressed.
Income Threshold: Research suggests money can buy happiness only up to a certain extent; it needs to cover basic needs (healthcare, adequate living). Beyond this threshold, additional money does not significantly increase happiness. This threshold varies with the economy.
Cognitive Changes:
Memory: While stereotypes suggest significant memory loss in old age, the decline isn't as severe as often believed.
Free Recall: Older adults are less adept at freely recalling information "out of nowhere" (e.g., an unprompted grocery list).
Cued Recall: When provided with cues or mnemonics (e.g., BEM for bread, eggs, milk), memory performance for older adults significantly improves, showing less decline.
Optimal Testing Times: Older adults tend to perform best cognitively in the early morning, whereas college students might perform better in the late afternoon. Testing older adults during their cognitive peak shows fewer memory changes.
Prevention: Staying physically and cognitively active (e.g., taking classes, using language apps like Duolingo, brain games) helps prevent cognitive decline.
Intelligence: Overall intelligence does not significantly decline in older adulthood.
Fluid vs. Crystallized: While specific facts or processing speed (fluid intelligence) might decrease, overall wisdom and accumulated knowledge (crystallized intelligence) often improve.
Terminal Decline: The most significant cognitive decline typically occurs during the last year of an individual's life when they pass from natural causes. This period often shows a noticeable drop in cognitive function.
Socioemotional Changes:
Socioemotional Selectivity Theory: This theory, originally developed for older adults but offering lessons for all ages, proposes that as people recognize their time on Earth is limited, they prioritize positive experiences and relationships.
Focus Shift: They spend less time worrying about minor daily hassles, trivial details, or negative relationships. Instead, they focus their energy and time on things that bring happiness and positive connections (e.g., close friends, family, partners).
Emotional Regulation: Older adults tend to experience less extreme emotions.
Reduced Volatility: They exhibit fewer "high highs" (e.g., intense excitement) and "low lows" (e.g., extreme anger, sadness, disappointment). They tend to take things "one day at a time" and are less easily phased by everyday events.
Critiques/Considerations: This theory is debated. For instance, the experience of bereavement after losing a long-term partner can still lead to profound grief and a significant "low low." There are also individual variations, such as some older adults becoming more irritable or "annoyed by everybody."
Brain Development and Decline (Frontal Lobe):
Frontal Lobe: This is the last part of the brain to fully develop, typically around age . It's responsible for higher-order functions such as decision-making, hypothetical reasoning, and understanding the consequences of actions.
Implications for Adolescence/Early Adulthood: Because the frontal lobe isn't fully developed, younger individuals may make decisions (e.g., regarding drug use, pregnancy, military service) with less developed understanding of long-term consequences, even though they are entering adult roles.
Decline in Adulthood: The frontal lobe is also one of the first parts of the brain to begin declining or "disintegrating" in older adulthood.
Implications for Older Adults: This decline can manifest as a reduced understanding of social cues, leading some older adults to say "rude, ignorant stuff" without fully grasping the social implications. While not an excuse, biological changes contribute to these observed psychological and behavioral shifts.
Survival vs. Development: The most primitive parts of the brain, essential for survival (e.g., controlling breathing, heartbeat), remain functional throughout life. The frontal lobe, being highly developed but "least necessary for survival," tends to be "last to grow, first to go."
Quiz Information
The upcoming quiz will cover content from Chapters 1 and 9.
Only material discussed in lecture or recitation will be included; anything skipped is excluded from the quiz.