Knowt
Unit 1.1-1.3
UNIT 1
Thinking Geographically
Chapter 1 Maps and Geographic Data
Chapter 2 Spatial Concepts and Geographic Analysis
Unit Overview
What distinguishes geography from all other fields is its focus on a particular perspective, or way of looking at things. That distinctive perspective is spatial and a concern for the interactions between humans and the physical environment. Geographers are certainly interested in where questions, but more importantly, they focus on the why there question, often expressed as "the why of where."
A spatial approach considers the arrangement of the phenomena being studied across the surface of the earth. The course's Big Ideas (see pages xxiv- xxv), Four-Level Analysis (described below through page 3), and the five skill categories (see pages 3-7) will serve as reliable frameworks for understanding topics from a geographic perspective.
Branches of Geography
Geography is commonly divided into two major branches that bridge the gap between the physical and social sciences:
Physical geography is the study of the spatial characteristics of various elements of the physical environment. Physical geographers study topics such as landforms, bodies of water, climate, ecosystems, and erosion.
• Human geography is the study of the spatial characteristics of humans and human activities. Human geographers study topics such as population, culture, politics, urban areas, and economics.
Four-Level Analysis Spatial Framework
Location is at the heart of all geographic understanding. The thinking skills used by geographers help them understand why things and people are where they are, and why the location of an item or of people with particular traits are important. The Four-Level Analysis spatial framework will guide your thinking, provide an approach to spatial thinking, and help you think like a geographer. You will use this process when looking at a map, chart, graph, data table, landscape, or an image such as Earth at night (shown on the following page).
UNIT 1: THINKING GEOGRAPHICALLY
1
Source: nasa.gov
2016 global scale Earth at night
Level
FOUR-LEVEL ANALYSIS SPATIAL FRAMEWORK
Comprehension What?
L1 Where?
Identification L2
Explanation L3
Prediction L4
When?
Scale?
Source?
Key Questions
Are there patterns in the source?
The source could be a map,
chart, graph, etc. There could be multiple patterns.
Pick a pattern from the source and explain:
Why did this pattern occur there? or How did this pattern occur?
You will use the content of the course to help answer these questions.
What will be the impact on the economy, society, politics, or the environment? or What if the pattern continues into the future?
Describe the impact or mnequeading effects and make predictions.
Possible Answers for Earth at Night Image Above
. What? Earth at night
·
Where? Earth
·
When? 2016
·
Scale? Global scale
. Source? nasa.gov
Numerous patterns
• Coasts are brighter than interior
• Northern Hemisphere is brighter
·
than Southern Hemisphere
. Eastern China is brighter than
Western China
Why do so many people live near the coasts?
Access to global trade networks or natural resources from oceans (fish), which results in more job opportunities, income, and food. The interior often has harsher climates (deserts or cold) and often less access to natural resources.
Impacts:
·
Economic-Cost of living (rent) is higher on the coasts because of the high demand for housing.
• Environmental-Human and factory waste can pollute the ocean, killing fish and wildlife.
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HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP EDITION
The chart on the previous page is designed to be just an introduction to the process with relatively simple responses and is not meant to include all possible answers. The depth and quality of responses should improve as you develop a deeper understanding of human geography. Throughout the text, references will be made to the different levels by using L1, L2, L3, or L4.
Essential Geography Skill Categories 1-5
The AP Human Geography exam will require students to not only learn the content and discipline-specific language of the course, but utilize and apply a set of essential skills to demonstrate their understanding of human geography. This section introduces these skills and prepares students to apply these skills using real world scenarios across all units of the course and both parts of the
exam.
Skill Category 1: Concepts and Processes
Analyze geographic theories, approaches, concepts, processes, or models in theoretical and applied contexts.
This skill contains a large amount of the content of the course and is the most tested skill on the exam:
Analyze means to break down into parts and study each part carefully.
• A theory is a system of ideas and concepts that attempt to explain and prove why or how interactions have occurred in the past or will occur in the future.
•
Concepts are key vocabulary, ideas, and building blocks that geographers use to describe our world.
Processes involve a series of steps or actions that explain why or how geographic patterns occur.
Models in Geography The most important element of this skill involves understanding and applying geographic models. Geographers, similar to biologists, meteorologists, and others who deal with complex reality, create geographic models. Models are representations of reality or theories about reality, to help geographers see general spatial patterns, focus on the influence of specific factors, and understand variations from place to place. Models help explain, describe, and sometimes even predict spatial activity and phenomena. There are two basic types of geographic models-spatial and nonspatial:
•
•
Spatial models look like stylized maps, and they illustrate theories about spatial distributions. Spatial models have been developed for agricultural and urban land use, distributions of cities, and store or factory location. Nonspatial models illustrate theories and concepts using words, graphs, or tables. They often depict changes over time rather than across space with more accuracy than spatial models.
UNIT 1: THINKING GEOGRAPHICALLY
3
Data Driven Models (Formulas and Graphs) Geographers use mathematic formulas to help them understand how the world works. These formulas function much like models. Some formulas, such as those that determine crude birth and death rates, doubling times for populations, and population densities, are mathematical calculations that are used to produce a
statistic.
One model that helps explain some patterns evident on the Earth at night image is what geographers call time-distance decay. Basically, the idea is that things, such as cities, near each other are more closely connected or related than things that are far apart, as shown in the graph below. The bright lights on the border between the United States and Mexico on the Earth at night map are partly explained because the lights show cities on both sides of the border. This illustrates the countries have lots of connections economically and culturally because they are close to each other.
TIME/DISTANCE DECAY MODEL
0
Number of Interactions
Distance From Each Other (Time or Distance)
The Time-Distance Decay Model illustrates decreasing interactions and connections as distance increases.
Applying Concepts and Processes In order to be successful in all elements of this skill, you will need to describe, explain, and compare concepts, processes, models, and theories. Students will have to apply the models in various contexts from around the world. The most challenging part of this skill will be to explain the strengths, weaknesses, and limitations of the model. Another way of saying this is, where a model works and where it doesn't work and explain why.
Skill Category 2: Spatial Relationships
Analyze geographic patterns, relationships, and outcomes in applied contexts.
Maps are the signature element of geography. Geographers examine maps to look for clues and patterns in the location and distribution of phenomena (L1 and L2). Spatial patterns refer to the general arrangement of things being studied. Describing these spatial patterns, networks, and relationships with precise language is critical to understanding spatial relationships. Geographers
4
HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP' EDITION
use specific terms-density, dispersion, clustered, scattered, linked, etc.—to communicate about locations and distributions.
Applying Spatial Relationships In order to be successful in this skill, students will view a source such as the North America at night image and then use the concepts, models, and theories to explain why and how the patterns on the image occurred (L3 and L4) and some likely outcomes (L4).
Geographers look at the networks, patterns, and relationships that exist between locations, how they evolve, and what their effects are. Networks are a set of interconnected entities, sometimes called nodes. The image below shows a network of cities that are connected by numerous strings of lights. These lights follow highways, rail lines, or river routes of transportation and illustrate a connectiveness to U.S. urban and transportation systems.
The last element of this skill requires explaining the degree to which a geographic concept or model effectively describes or explains expected outcomes. This skill requires a deep understanding of different regions of the world and an ability to understand the strengths and weaknesses of various models and theories.
Source: nasa.gov
2016 North America at night
Skill Category 3: Data Analysis
Analyze and interpret quantitative geographic data represented in maps, tables, charts, graphs, satellite images, and infographics.
Quantitative data is any information that can be measured and recorded using numbers such as total number of immigrants to a city. More specifically, geospatial data is quantitative and spatial. It has a geographic location component to it such as a country, city, zip code, latitude, longitude, or address and is often used with geographic information systems (see Topics 1.2 and 1.3) because it lends itself to analysis using formulas and is mappable. An example would be average annual income by country.
UNIT 1: THINKING GEOGRAPHICALLY
5
Applying Data Analysis This skill is similar to Skill 2 except it involves interpreting quantitative statistical data expressed in numbers. This numerical data can be shown in a variety of ways, and examples include life expectancy, income, birth rate, etc. If the data is shown in a map, describing the spatial pattern (L2) accurately and with precision is critical for analysis. If the data is in a graph or chart, describing the variables and trend on the graph or chart (L2) is very important to an accurate interpretation.
The data analysis skill requires the use of concepts, models, and theories to explain why and how these patterns occurred (L3) and some likely outcomes and/or impacts (L4). Using the global scale Earth at night, you can use quantitative data, such as income, to explain why some places are brighter than others. Places that have higher income are more likely to afford electricity in their homes. But be careful, because a difference in income isn't the only reason why some places are bright or dark. Some of the dark areas may be difficult to live in due to extreme climates, such as the regions within the Sahara in northern Africa.
The most difficult part of this skill will be to recognize the limitations of the data. This will require an understanding of trustworthy sources of information, incomplete or inaccurate data, and possible mistakes in gathering the data.
Skill Category 4: Source Analysis
Analyze and interpret qualitative geographic information represented in maps, images (e.g., satellite, photographic, cartoon), and landscapes.
Qualitative sources are not usually represented by numbers. This data is collected as interviews, photographs, remote satellite images, descriptions, or cartoons. For example, asking people if they feel an intersection is dangerous is qualitative as is reviewing a photograph of a city's landscape.
Applying Source Analysis When viewing qualitative sources, you can use Four-Level Analysis to help guide your approach. Geographers look for the following elements: types of information within the source, patterns within a source, and similarities and differences between sources (L1 and L2).
Once this has been accomplished, geographers turn their attention to explaining the reasons why or how geographic concepts and ideas explain the patterns (L3) within the source and the possible impacts of the patterns (L4).
Like all data, there are limitations of visual and other qualitative resources such as only showing a part of the overall landscape, the time of day that the information was gathered, interviews that may include opinions not based on accurate information, or the author's lack of understanding of a culture's beliefs or values. In the case of the Earth at night image, one of the major limitations is that the image does not show lights where all people in the world live, just the places that can afford to have electricity. The image really only shows wealthier populations and larger cities where electricity is available.
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HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP' EDITION
Skill Category 5: Scale Analysis
Analyze geographic theories, approaches, concepts, processes, and models across geographic scales to explain spatial relationships.
One of the most powerful skills of geographers is changing scales of analysis, or looking at topics at the local, regional, country, or global scale. This process will be described in greater detail in Chapter 2 (see Topic 1.6), but essentially, changing scale of analysis involves studying phenomena by zooming in and zooming out in order to develop a more complete understanding of the topics being studied.
Applying Scale Analysis The Earth at night image can be used again to solidify your understanding. The map shows an image at the global or worldwide scale, and the pattern of more people living on the coast than the interior is a strong global scale pattern. However, the pattern that more people live in eastern China than western China is a country level scale of analysis. To take this one step further, a geographer could zoom into the local or city scale to see the border between the United States and Mexico, near San Diego. What is important is that at each scale, we may observe different patterns and reasons of why or how (L3) or the impacts (L4) that may be different or the same at each scale of analysis.
Source: nasa.gov
A zoomed in view of the U.S.-Mexico border showing San Diego, California, and Tijuana, Mexico.
Mastering the strategy of Four-Level Analysis spatial framework and the five essential skills of this course will take your ability to understand human geography to the next level.
ENDURING UNDERSTANDINGS
IMP-1: Geographers use maps and data to depict relationships of time, space, and scale. PSO-1: Geographers analyze relationships among and between places to reveal
important spatial patterns.
SPS-1: Geographers analyze complex issues and relationships with a distinctively
spatial perspective.
Source: AP Human Geography Course and Exam Description. Effective Fall 2020. (College Board).
UNIT 1: THINKING GEOGRAPHICALLY
7
1.1
Introduction to Maps
Essential Question: What information is presented in different types of maps, and how do those maps show spatial patterns, the power of geographic data, and relationships among places?
G
eographers emphasize spatial patterns, which are the general arrangements of things being studied and the repeated sequences of events, or processes, that create them. Learning to recognize and use geographical patterns is a fundamental skill in understanding the discipline. One of the most important tools of geographers are maps. Improvements in geospatial and computer technologies have dramatically increased the quality of maps, the accuracy of data, and the variety of maps available to study and use. Maps and geospatial data now influence everyday life with the use of smartphones and apps that allow us to not only view maps but interact, modify, and show our own location within the map.
Maps
Maps are the most important tool of a geographer and help to organize complex information. No tool communicates spatial information more effectively than a map. Maps are essential in highlighting and analyzing patterns. There are two broad categories of maps: reference maps and thematic maps:
Reference Maps
Reference maps are aptly named because they are designed for people to refer to for general information about places.
•
Political
maps
G
show and label human-created boundaries and
designations, such as countries, states, cities, and capitals.
Physical maps show and label natural features, such as mountains, rivers, and deserts.
• Road maps show and label highways, streets, and alleys.
• Plat
maps show and label property lines and details of land ownership.
1.1: INTRODUCTION TO MAPS
9
PACIFIC
REFERENCE MAP OF MEXICO
(UNITED STATES
Ciudad Juárez
MEXICO
OCEAN
Guadalajara
Ecatepec
Mexico City o
Puebla
• National capital
Highway
Major city
A Mountains
0 100 200 300 Kilometers
0
100 200 300 Miles
Gulf of Mexico
GUATEMALA
BELIZE
CUBA
Reference map
of Mexico from 2020. What type of reference material is included in the map? For what purpose might this map be useful?
Thematic Maps
Thematic maps show spatial aspects of information or of a phenomenon. Following are descriptions of four common types of thematic maps.
Choropleth maps use
various colors, shades of one color, or patterns to show the location and distribution of spatial data. They often show rates or other quantitative data in defined areas, such as the percentage of people who speak English.
Dot distribution maps are used to show the specific location and distribution of something across a map. Each dot represents a specified quantity. One dot might stand for one school building or for millions of people who own dogs. While these maps are known as dot distribution maps, any kind of symbol—a triangle, the outline of a house, a cow-can be used instead of dots.
10 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP EDITION
MAP PATTERNS
O
Choropleth
Graduated Symbol
Dot Distribution
Isoline
Graduated symbol maps use symbols of different sizes to indicate different amounts of something. Larger sizes indicate more of something, and smaller sizes indicate less. These maps make it easy to see where the largest and smallest of some phenomena are by simply comparing the symbols to each other. The map key is used to determine the exact amount. The symbols themselves are arranged on the map centered over the location represented by the data, so they may overlap. Graduated symbol maps are also called proportional symbol maps.
Isoline maps, also called isometric maps, use lines that connect points of equal value to depict variations in the data across space. Where lines are close together, the map depicts rapid change, and where the lines are farther apart, the phenomenon is relatively the same. The most common type of isoline maps are topographic maps, which are popular among hikers. Points of equal elevation are connected on these maps, creating contours that depict surface features. Other examples of isoline maps are weather maps showing changes in barometric pressure, temperature, or precipitation across space.
In a cartogram, the sizes of countries (or states, counties, or other areal units) are shown according to some specific statistic. In the example below, the cartogram of world population shows Canada and Morocco as roughly the same size because they have similar populations (about 35 million people), even though Canada is more than 20 times larger in area. Any variable for which there are statistics can be substituted for the size of the country and mapped in the same way. Cartograms are useful because they allow for data to be compared, much like a graph, and distance and distribution are also visible, like on a traditional
map.
Canada
United
States
סלל
China
Morocco
India
E Indonesia
The size of each country reflects the total population. Based on the graphic, which countries have the largest populations?
C
ם
1.1: INTRODUCTION TO MAPS
11
Scale
Nearly every map is a smaller version of a larger portion of the earth's surface. In other words, a map is a reduction of the actual land area it represents. Scale is the ratio between the size of things in the real world and the size of those same things on the map. A map has three types of scale: cartographic scale, geographic scale and the scale of the data represented on the map. (See Topic 1.6 for more about scale.)
Cartographic scale refers to the way the map communicates the ratio of its size to the size of what it represents:
Words: for example, “1 inch equals 10 miles." In this case, 2 inches on the map would be 20 miles on the surface of the Earth.
A ratio: for example, 1/200,000 or 1:200,000. This means that 1 unit of measurement on the map is equal to 200,000 of the same unit in reality. For example, 1 inch on the map represents 200,000 inches (or 3.15 miles) on the ground.
• A line: for example, the map may show a line and indicate that its distance on the map represents ten miles in reality. This is sometimes called a linear, or graphic, scale.
Scale: Small-scale maps show a larger amount of area with less detail- global scale Earth at night is an example. Large-scale maps show a smaller amount of area with a greater amount of detail-North America at night is an example.
Types of Spatial Patterns Represented on a Map Spatial patterns refer to the general arrangement of phenomena on a map. Spatial patterns can be described in a variety of way utilizing important geographic tools and concepts including location, direction, distance, elevation, or distribution pattern.
Location
Locations may be absolute or relative. Absolute location is the precise spot where something is according to a system. The most widely used system is the global grid of lines known as latitude and longitude. Latitude is the distance north or south of the equator, an imaginary line that circles the globe exactly halfway between the North and South Poles. The equator is designated as 0 degrees and the poles as 90 degrees north and 90 degrees south.
Longitude is the distance east or west of the prime meridian, an imaginary line that runs from pole to pole through Greenwich, England. It is designated as 0 degrees. On the opposite side of the globe from the prime meridian is 180 degrees longitude. The International Date Line roughly follows this line but makes deviations to accommodate international boundaries. Thus, on this system, the absolute location of Mexico City is 19 degrees north latitude and 99 degrees west longitude.
12
HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP EDITION
60°
THE GLOBAL GRID
150
120'
90
60° 30'
0°
30*
60° 90°
120
150'
NORTH AMERICA
PACIFIC
30°
OCEAN
Mexico City
0
Equator
30°
60°
ARCTIC OCEAN
60°
EUROPE
ASIA
30°
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
AFRICA
PACIFIC OCEAN
19°N, 99 W
SOUTH AMERICA
Prime meridian
INDIAN OCEAN
AUSTRALIA
and
0
2,000 Miles
2,000 Kilometers
SOUTHERN OCEAN
60°
ANTARCTICA
150° 120'
90°
60° 30°
0°
30° 60' 90*
120° 150
30"
σ
Relative location is a description of where something is in relation to other things. To describe Salt Lake City, Utah, as being "just south of the Great Salt Lake and just west of the Rocky Mountains, on Interstate 15 about halfway between Las Vegas, Nevada, and Butte, Montana," is one way (of many) to describe its relative location. Relative location is often described in terms of connectivity, how well two locations are tied together by roads or other links, and accessibility, how quickly and easily people in one location can interact with people in another location.
Direction is used in order to describe where things are in relation to each other. Cardinal directions such as north, east, south, or west or intermediate directions such as southeast or southwest are commonly used to describe direction. On most maps, north will be the top of the map, but be sure to look on the map for cardinal direction clues.
THE RELATIVE LOCATION OF SALT LAKE CITY
CANADA
WASHINGTON
Butte
OREGON
IDAHO
NEVADA
Salt Lake City
CALIFORNIA
MONTANA
WYOMING
INTERSTATE 15
Las
Vegas
UTAH
ARIZONA
0
500 Miles
0
500 Kilometers
MEXICO
This map shows the relative location of Salt Lake City along Interstate 15. What are advantages for business or cities being located near an interstate?
1.1: INTRODUCTION TO MAPS 13
Relative locations can change over time and as accessibility changes. For example, the many ghost towns (abandoned settlements) of the western United States once had relative locations near water sources (which dried up), along trade routes (which changed), or near mines (which closed). Their good relative locations lost the advantages of access to resources or trade that they once had. However, their absolute locations, as described by the global grid of latitude and longitude, remain the same.
Distance
Distance is a measurement of how far or how near things are to one another. Absolute distance is usually measured in terms of feet, miles, meters or kilometers. For example, the absolute distance from home to your school is 2.2 miles.
The term relative distance indicates the degree of nearness based on time or money and is often dependent on the mode of travel. For example, traveling from home to your school takes 10 minutes by car or 25 minutes walking.
Elevation
Elevation is the distance of features above sea level, usually measured in feet or meters. The elevation of the summit of Mount Everest is over 29,000 feet. Elevation can impact a variety of things including climate, weather, and agriculture. Usually, the higher the elevation, the cooler the temperature gets and at very high elevations, it becomes more difficult for certain crops to grow. Elevation is usually shown on maps with contours (isolines).
10
20
30
30
40
40
50
A
B
50
40
30
20
10
0
A
50
98220
40
30
20
10
B
Source: usgs.gov
A contour map (isoline), like the one above, shows elevation of physical features.
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HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP' EDITION
Pattern Distribution
Geographers are also interested in distribution, the way a phenomenon is spread out over an area (L2). Essentially, distribution is a description of the pattern of where specific phenomenon are located. Geographers look for patterns, or the general arrangement of things, in the distribution of phenomena across space that give clues about causes or effects of the distribution. Common distribution patterns include the following:
0
Clustered or agglomerated phenomena are arranged in a group or concentrated area such as restaurants in a food court at a mall or the clustering of cities along the border of the United States and Mexico.
• Linear phenomena are arranged in a straight line, such as the distribution of towns along a railroad line.
•
Dispersed phenomena are spread out over a large area, such as the distribution of large malls in a city.
• Circular phenomena are equally spaced from a central point, forming a circle, such as the distribution of the homes of people who shop at a particular store.
0
Geometric phenomena are in a regular arrangement, such as the squares or blocks formed by roads in the Midwest.
Random phenomena appear to have no order to their position, such as the distribution of pet owners in a city.
Projections
Because the earth is a sphere and maps are flat, all maps distort some aspect of reality. The process of showing a curved surface on a flat surface is done using a map projection. Cartographers decide whether they want to preserve area, shape, distance, or direction on their map accurately, knowing that other elements will have to be less accurate as the earth is "flattened" on their map. Essentially all maps are distorted, but cartographers use different maps for different purposes.
The Mercator, one of the most famous projections, was designed for navigation because the lines of directions are straight and easy to follow. A weakness of the Mercator on a global scale is that it makes the land masses appear larger than reality as you move north or south from the equator. This results in the countries of North America and Europe appearing larger and possibly more powerful than the countries near the equator. Greenland's size on a Mercator looks to be the same size of Africa, however, in reality, Africa is 14 times the size of Greenland.
Geographers are concerned by the political and economic bias of power, wealth, and superiority that can be subconsciously reinforced by using an incorrect projection. All projections and maps have strengths and weaknesses. The key is to understand this and select the best projection for the map.
1.1: INTRODUCTION TO MAPS 15
180° W
120° W
180° W
90° N
ΤΕΡΝ
30 NY
60 W
120" W
09
30 S
695
Mercator Projection
60° W
180 E
180 W
120 W
180 E
90° N 60° N 30° N 0° 30° S 45° S
60° E
0°
Conic Projection
120° E
90° N
60° W
60 N
180° W
30 N
09
30 S
60° S
60 E
90° S
Peters Projection
120 W
*
90° N
60° W
60% N
30 N
08
30° S
180° E
180° E
60° S
90% S
60 E
Robinson Projection
COMPARING MAP PROJECTIONS
Projection Purpose
Mercator
Navigation
Strengths
. Directions are shown
accurately
·
Peters
Spatial distributions related to area
·
Conic
General use in
midlatitude countries
Robinson
General use
Lines of latitude and longitude meet at right angles
Sizes of land masses
are accurate
. Lines of longitude
converge
-
·
■
Lines of latitude are curved
Size and shape are
both close to reality
No major distortion
. Oval shape appears
more like a globe than does a rectangle
·
·
DistortionHUP (Weaknesses)
Distance between lines of longitude
appears constant
Land masses near the poles appear large
Shapes are
inaccurate, especially near the poles
Direction is not
constant
On a world map,
longitude lines
converge at only one pole
·
Area, shape, size,
and direction are all
slightly distorted
16 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP' EDITION
REFLECT ON THE ESSENTIAL QUESTION
Essential Question: What information is presented in different types of maps, and how do those maps show spatial patterns, the power of geographic data, and rela- tionships among places?
Types of Maps
Types of Information in Maps
Ways to Describe Spatial Patterns
KEY TERMS
physical geography
human geography
Four-Level Analysis
physical maps
road maps
plat maps
International Date Line
relative location
connectivity
analyze
theory
concepts
processes
models
spatial models
nonspatial models
time-distance decay
spatial patterns
networks
thematic maps
choropleth maps
dot distribution maps
graduated symbol maps
isoline maps
topographic maps
cartogram
scale
cartographic scale
small-scale maps
quantitative data
large-scale maps
geospatial data qualitative sources scales of analysis
absolute location
latitude
equator
accessibility
direction
patterns
absolute distance
relative distance
elevation
distribution
clustered (agglomerated)
distribution
linear distribution
dispersed distribution
circular distribution
geometric distribution
random distribution
reference maps
longitude
political maps
prime meridian
1.1: INTRODUCTION TO MAPS 17
1.2
Geographic Data
Essential Question: What are different methods of geographical data collection?
Geographers often refer to the current era as being part of a geospatial
revolution because they gather data through technical mapping and via satellites or aerial photos. Geographers also have the ability to gather data by visiting places, interviewing people, or observing events in the field. The quality of data gathered by individuals or institutions is important because patterns within the data will influence real-life individual choices and policy decisions.
Landscape Analysis
The word landscape comes from older Germanic words that refer to the condition of the land. The term can also imply a specific area, as in a “desert landscape" or the "landscape of Tuscany." The task of defining and describing landscapes is called landscape analysis.
Observation and Interpretation
The first part of landscape analysis is careful observation. Geographers are keen observers of phenomena and collect data about what they see. The term field observation is used to refer to the act of physically visiting a location, place, or region and recording, firsthand, information there. Geographers can often be found writing notes, taking photographs, sketching maps, counting and measuring things, and interviewing people as they walk through an area that they are interested in studying. For most of the history of geography, this was the only way to gather data about places. All of the information that can be tied to specific locations is called spatial data.
Developments in Gathering Data Modern technology has increased the ways in which geographers can obtain spatial data including remote sensing and aerial sources. Remote sensing gathers information from satellites that orbit the earth or other craft above the atmosphere. Aerial photography, professional images captured from planes within the atmosphere, is an important source of observed data available today. Ground-level photography has replaced sketching as a tool for capturing information about landscapes. Sound recordings and the ability to get chemical analyses of air, water, and soil have also changed the way geographers observe a landscape.
Interpreting Data Once data has been gathered, it must be interpreted. Geographers depend on their skills of synthesizing and integrating, or putting together, all of the collected information to better understand the place, area,
18 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP° EDITION
or landscape being studied. A common example clearly observable today is the changes that occur in the landscapes of rural and urban areas over time. A geographer may be interested in understanding what changes are likely to occur as people move into or out of an area:
•
•
•
Who are the people migrating into this area? Who is leaving?
What are the cultures of these groups of people?
What effects will the changes have on the local economy?
• What are the causes of people moving?
• What types of human-environment interaction are occurring?
Geospatial Data
Geospatial data can be quantitative or qualitative and may be gathered by organizations or individuals. Geospatial data includes all information that can be tied to a specific place. Besides locations of things, such as mountains or roads or boundaries, it includes human activities and traits. Where do speakers of Mandarin live? How common is poverty in each U.S. county? Where is the dividing line in a city between students who attend one high school and those who attend another school?
SOURCES OF QUANTITATIVE DATA
LIFE EXPECTANCY, 2019
Japan
China
80 years
United States
World
70 years
Ethiopia
60 years
50 years
40 years
-
<50 years
60 years 70 years
80 years
30 years
55 years
65 years
75 years
>85 years
Country
Afghanistan
Africa
63.4 years
Albania
61.6 years
78 years
Algeria
76.1 years
64.8 years
63.2 years
78,6 years
76.9 years
+1.5 years
+2%
+1.6 years
+3%
+0.5 years
<1%
+0.8 years
+1%
MAP
GLOBAL LIFE EXPECTANCY 2015 AND 2019
2015
2019
Absolute Realtive Change Change
1770 1800 1850 1900 1950
GRAPH
LIFE EXPECTANCY, 1990 AND 2020
75.20
years
World female life expectancy at birth increased by 8.71 years
2020
70.41
years
World male life
expectancy at birth increased by 8.47 years
2015
American Samoa
73.6 years
73.7 years
+0.2 years
<1%
Americas
76,4 years
76.8 years
Andorra
83.1 years
Angola
59.4 years
Anguilla
Antigua and Barbuda
81.3 years
76.5 years
83.7 years
61.1 years
81.9 years
77.9 years
+0.4 years
+0.7 years
+1.7 years
+0.5 years
+0.5 years
<1%
1990
1990
<1%
+3%
66.49
years
61.94
years
<1%
<1%
DATA TABLE
Source: ourworldindata.org
INFOGRAPHIC
The images illustrate different ways that quantitative geospatial data related to life expectancy can be presented. What are strengths and weaknesses of data presented in each image?
1.2: GEOGRAPHIC DATA
19
Obtaining Geospatial Data
Geographers collect geospatial data by doing fieldwork, or observing and recording information on location, or in the field. Important sources of this type of data can come from a census of the population, from interviews, or even from informal observations made by geographers. Land surveys, photographs, and sketches are also important ways in which this data is obtained. Technology is making the collection, storage, analysis, and display of geospatial data easier, as well as more accurate, than at any time in the past. The chart in Topic 1.3 illustrates three technologies that have revolutionized the importance of geospatial data.
Other Sources of Geospatial Data
Additional sources of data can come from government policy documents such as treaties or agreements, articles and videos from news media outlets, or photos of an area. Many tech companies who design apps for smartphones use locational data elements that make suggestions on food options or activities that are near to you. Most photos taken with smartphones have geospatial data embedded into the image that can be mapped in interactive online maps sites. In fact, many companies and some governments are interested in buying your smartphone geospatial data so they can make targeted advertisements or
DMM
F21
FOREVER 21
BALLS
COFFEE
TSUTAYA
policy decisions related to your locational activities. Students of geography can be local geographers who gather information projects or field studies.
for
Qualitative data can include photos (as of Tokyo to the left), satellite photos (as seen on page 2), cartoons, or interviews. How can qualitative data better help geographers to understand a place?
REFLECT ON THE ESSENTIAL QUESTION
Essential Question: What are different methods of geographical data collection?
Individual Sources
Institutional Sources
KEY TERMS
landscape analysis
field observations
spatial data remote sensing
20
HUMAN GEOGRAPHY: AP EDITION
aerial photography fieldwork
