History of Modern China: KMT-CCP Relations, Civil War, and the Mao Era
The Deterioration of Kuomintang-Communist Relations
Following the conclusion of the War of Resistance against Japan, the relationship between the Kuomintang (KMT) and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) underwent a severe decline. During the war, the CCP significantly expanded its influence by establishing bases in Japanese-occupied territories, creating what were known as "Liberation Areas." By the end of the war, these areas covered approximately , with a total population of and a military force exceeding soldiers. This expansion led to deep-seated resentment and anxiety within the National Government. Specific wartime conflicts, such as the Wannan Incident (New Fourth Army Incident), eventually led to a total breakdown in their cooperative relationship.
The immediate cause of the renewed civil conflict was the dispute over the acceptance of the Japanese surrender. The National Government maintained that the Japanese military should only surrender to its Nationalist forces (the National Revolutionary Army) and that the central government should be responsible for garrisoning the original occupied areas. Conversely, the CCP refused to comply with these directives. They moved to take over occupied zones in North and South China, seized key transportation routes, and entered Northeast China (Manchuria) with Soviet assistance to take control of Japanese military equipment and resources.
Post-War Negotiations and the Collapse of Peace
Despite the friction, several attempts at peace were made due to domestic and international pressures. Internally, China was suffering from a post-war economic depression and a lack of essential resources, leading the general populace to long for peace and reconstruction. Externally, the United States and the Soviet Union pushed for reconciliation based on their own strategic interests. This led to the Chongqing Negotiations, where Chiang Kai-shek invited Mao Zedong and the American Ambassador to China, Patrick J. Hurley, to sign the "Double Tenth Agreement" (October 10th Agreement). Both parties agreed to "resolutely oppose civil war" and convened a Political Consultative Conference.
Further mediation efforts included the arrival of U.S. Special Envoy George Marshall, who helped facilitate the "Truce Agreement." This resulted in the formation of a Military Three-Person Group and the Executive Headquarters for military mediation. The National Government subsequently convened the Political Consultative Conference in Chongqing to discuss reorganizing the Nationalist Party, reorganizing the army, convening the National Assembly, and drafting a constitution. However, negotiations ultimately collapsed because the ownership of political power and military control remained an irreconcilable fundamental issue. While talks were ongoing, military skirmishes continued unabated in the field.
The Chinese Civil War: Course and Victory Factors
In the initial stages of the all-out civil war, the National Government held the advantage, possessing superior troop numbers, land area, and population control, as well as significant military aid and equipment from the United States. During this phase, the Nationalists managed to capture Yan'an, the primary mountain base of the CCP, forcing the Communists to retreat into rural areas. However, as the war progressed, the Nationalist battle lines became overextended, leading to a dispersion of combat power and a decline in overall effectiveness. The CCP, meanwhile, utilized mobile warfare to defeat Nationalist forces piece by piece through a strategy of attrition.
The turning point arrived as the CCP moved from a defensive posture to an offensive one, recapturing Yan'an and causing the Nationalists to lose controlled territories. This culminated in the Three Major Campaigns: the Liaoshen Campaign, the Huaihai Campaign, and the Pingjin Campaign. During these battles, the Nationalist main forces and approximately soldiers were either defeated or reorganized into the Communist army. By the end of these campaigns, the CCP controlled the territory north of the Yangtze River, and the Nationalist military strength was surpassed.
The final result saw the Nationalist government suffer a total collapse on the mainland. Chiang Kai-shek was forced to retire, and Li Zongren served as the Acting President. When Li failed to accept the CCP's terms, negotiations broke down completely. The CCP forces crossed the Yangtze River, captured Nanjing, and pursued the Nationalists across Guangzhou, Chongqing, and Chengdu, eventually forcing them to retreat to Taiwan. The victory of the CCP is attributed to several factors: politically, the KMT's corruption during the recovery of occupied areas disillusioned the public, while the CCP's discipline and focus on workers and peasants won their support. Economically, the KMT suffered from currency policy failures and hyperinflation, whereas the CCP's land reform, tax reductions, and rent reductions gained peasant loyalty. Militarily, the Nationalist troops suffered from war-weariness and low morale, and their strategy of occupying major cities left them vulnerable to the CCP's flexible guerrilla and mobile tactics.
The Establishment of the People’s Republic of China and Early Movements
Following the civil war, preparations for a new state were conducted at the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) in Beiping. This meeting resulted in the "Common Program of the CPPCC." Mao Zedong was appointed as the Chairman of the Central People's Government. Beiping, renamed Beijing, became the capital. The Five-star Red Flag was adopted as the national flag, and