American Imperialism

Unit 7: American Imperialism Debates

Definition and Context of Imperialism

  • Imperialism: A process by which a powerful state extends authority over a weaker state to exploit its resources, leading to a loss of sovereignty and self-determination for the colonized.

    • Authority can come in various forms, such as economic control or direct political control.

  • Historical context: The United States began as an imperial venture against Great Britain and fought for independence due to perceptions of imperialism as unjust and exploitative.

    • Over a century later, American policymakers shifted perspectives, embracing imperialism.

Transition to American Imperialism

  • In the late 19th century, foreign policymakers and wealthy industrialists looked beyond U.S. borders for new markets and raw materials.

  • The U.S. was initially delayed in joining European states in overseas expansion due to the Civil War and Reconstruction.

  • By the end of the 19th century, industrialization and economic growth prepared the U.S. for imperial endeavors.

  • Historical precedents of imperialistic policies in the U.S.:

    • Displacement of indigenous Americans through westward expansion.

    • Territorial losses for Mexico after the Mexican-American War.

  • Manifest Destiny: This ideology influenced the belief in American expansion as a historical inevitability.

The Debate over Imperialism

Imperialists' Arguments for Expansion

  1. Economic Opportunities

    • Expansion viewed as essential to seize economic opportunities abroad.

    • Key figure: William Seward, Secretary of State, advocated for economic access to Asian markets.

      • Seward's Folly: Purchase of Alaska from Russia in 1868, initially viewed with skepticism but recognized as a strategic gain during the economic distress following the Panic of 1893.

  2. Racial Theories and Social Darwinism

    • Social Darwinism suggested that the wealthiest Americans were the most 'fit' in society.

    • Misapplication of Darwin's theory to justify inequality and promote American exceptionalism.

    • Josiah Strong, an influential minister, argued for the civilizing mission to spread Christianity and Western civilization, framed as a duty to 'lesser' races.

    • Reference to Rudyard Kipling's poem, The White Man's Burden as articulating this ideology.

  3. Competitive Imperatives

    • Growing competition with European imperial powers led to fears of geopolitical irrelevance.

    • Alfred Thayer Mahan, in The Influence of Sea Power upon History, argued that naval power was vital for national strength—advocated for U.S. naval expansion.

    • By late 19th century, navy investments increased with state-of-the-art ships being commissioned.

  4. Closing of the Western Frontier

    • The census of 1890 indicated the settlement of the Western frontier, leading to a sense of lost opportunities.

    • Frederick Jackson Turner introduced the Frontier Thesis, claiming that American democracy hinged on the existence of a frontier, suggesting overseas expansion as a new frontier.

Anti-Imperialists' Opposition

  • Established the Anti-Imperialist League in 1898 in response to proposed annexation of the Philippines.

  1. Self-Determination Principles

    • Argued that imperialism contradicted the foundational American value that nations should govern themselves.

    • Cited the Spirit of 1776 and the commitment to government by consent.

  2. Tradition of Isolationism

    • Draws from George Washington's farewell address warning against entangling alliances and foreign interventions.

    • Connected to the Monroe Doctrine, which stipulated U.S. detachment from European affairs while asserting influence in the Americas.

  3. Racial Concerns

    • Anti-imperialists like Andrew Carnegie warned against the inclusion of large non-white populations into the U.S. through imperialism, fearing it would challenge the Anglo-Saxon supremacy.

    • Carnegie's 1898 essay, “Distant Possessions,” articulated these concerns.

Conclusion of Debate

  • Ultimately, imperialists prevailed in the debate over expansion, culminating in the U.S. victory in the Spanish-American War, positioning the United States firmly as an imperial power with an overseas empire.