World History II Notes
Paleolithic Persistence and Agricultural Village Societies
Substantial areas still practicing hunting and gathering in the 15th century, including Australia, Siberia, parts of Africa, and the Americas.
Australia:
Many groups continued hunting and gathering until the 18th century.
Adopted practices from outsiders.
Used "firestick farming" to manage the environment.
Engaged in extensive trade networks.
Developed elaborate rituals, sculptures, and rock paintings.
North America:
Groups like Chinookan, Tulalip, and Skagit created "complex" or "affluent" hunting and gathering societies.
Established permanent villages.
Developed ranked societies.
Accumulated food surpluses.
Had powerful leaders or 'big men'.
Igbo:
Located in the forested region of West Africa.
Did not develop centralized states like their neighbors.
Maintained social cohesion through institutions, not kinship.
Traded with distant peoples, such as the Songhay.
Iroquois:
Located near central New York State.
Became fully agricultural, adopting maize in the 1300s.
Agriculture was primarily women's work.
Formed a loose alliance among the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca to settle differences peacefully and coordinate actions.
Pastoral Peoples and the Ming Dynasty
Pastoral peoples relied more directly on civilizations.
Timur:
A Turkic warrior who attempted to restore the Mongol Empire in the late 14th and 15th centuries.
Brought devastation to Russia, Persia, and India.
Died in 1405 while planning an attack on China.
Fulbe:
Africa’s largest pastoral society.
Migrated eastward after 1000 CE.
Lived in small communities with agricultural peoples, paying fees for pasturing cattle.
Adopted Islam.
Some became respected religious leaders and founded towns.
Played a central role in Jihads.
Ming Dynasty:
Restored China after Mongol rule.
Eliminated signs of foreign rule.
Promoted Confucian learning and traditional gender roles.
Emperor Yongle:
Created an encyclopedia with over 2,000 scholars.
Re-established the civil service examination system.
Economic rebound, flourishing trade, and population growth occurred.
Undertook large maritime expeditions led by Zheng He.
Visited ports in Southeast Asia, Indonesia, India, Arabia, and East Africa.
Enrolled people in the Chinese tribute system.
Expeditions stopped due to Yongle's death and perceived waste of resources.
Chinese merchants traded with Japan, the Philippines, Taiwan, and Southeast Asia without government assistance.
European Comparisons and the Renaissance
Europe consisted of many independent states, leading to a divided Western civilization.
States learned to tax citizens more efficiently.
Moscow emerged as the center of the Russian state in the 15th century.
England and France fought for over a century.
European Renaissance:
Celebrated reclaimed Greco-Roman traditions.
Wealthy male elites moved away from confined religious feudal Europe.
Cities drew inspiration from ancient Greece and Rome.
European maritime expeditions:
Portugal sailed down the west coast of Africa in 1415.
Christopher Columbus, funded by Spain, sailed across the Atlantic in 1492, seeking a route to the East but encountering the Americas.
Vasco da Gama voyaged around the tip of South Africa and up the east coast of Africa in 1497.
Ottoman, Safavid, Songhay, and Mughal Empires
Ottoman Empire (14th-20th centuries):
Created by Turkic warrior groups who migrated to Anatolia.
Expanded into the Anatolian peninsula and southeastern Europe after 1000 CE.
By the 16th century, controlled the Middle East, coastal North Africa, the Black Sea region, and parts of Eastern Europe.
Ranked among the wealthiest and most powerful empires, alongside Ming dynasty China and the Inca Empire in the 15th century.
Claimed their sultans were "caliphs."
The Ottoman seizure of Constantinople in 1453 marked the final demise of the Christian Byzantine Empire, with Ottoman rulers seeing themselves as successors to the Roman Empire.
Constantinople thought the city safe given walls and water barriers were overtaken by 60k Turk soldiers against 8k Byzantine defenders.
Safavid Empire:
Founded in 1500 by the Sufi religious order led by Safi al-Din.
Imposed a Shia version of Islam as the official religion of the state, creating a sharp divide in the political and religious life of Islam.
Songhay Empire:
West African empire that rose to prominence in the second half of the 15th century.
Islam was a growing religion but largely confined to the elite in urban centers.
Mughal Empire:
Established in India in the 16th century.
Unified much of the Indian peninsula.
Early policies blended Hindu and Muslim groups.
Inclusive policies in its early years.
Melaka:
A Muslim port city located between Sumatra and Malaya.
Aztec and Inca Empires
Aztec Empire:
Originated as a semi-nomadic group from northern Mexico known as the Mexica.
In 1325, they established themselves on a small island in Lake Texcoco.
Over the next century, they built a military and gained power through mercenary service, elite marriage alliances, and the construction of their capital city, Tenochtitlán.
In 1428, they formed a triple alliance with two other city-states.
Within 100 years, they created a single political framework in Mesoamerica.
The population of the empire was approximately 5-6 million people.
The empire was loosely structured and unstable, facing frequent rebellions.
Conquered cities were required to provide labor for Aztec projects and give impressive tribute to Aztec rulers, overseen by imperial tribute collectors.
The city of Tenochtitlán featured a 200 ft high pyramid and floating gardens.
The marketplace of Tlatelolco was the largest in the empire.
Enslaved people were often sacrificed in rituals to religious gods.
Human sacrifice was given great importance by the state.
The Aztec deity Huitzilopochtli was believed to be in constant battle against darkness.
Aztecs believed they were always on the edge of catastrophe and needed to replenish the energy of the gods through human blood.
Most sacrificial victims were prisoners of war, leading to a warfare technique focused on capturing prisoners rather than killing them.
Inca Empire:
The Quechua-speaking people, known as the Incas, created the largest state in the Western Hemisphere along the spine of the Andes Mountains.
They incorporated cultures from earlier Andean civilizations.
The empire stretched 2,500 miles and encompassed approximately 10 million people.
The Inca state incorporated almost all of Andean civilization and lasted from the 15th to 16th centuries, with similarities to the Mongol empire.
It was a bureaucratic empire with an emperor, Inca governors, and local officials.
The state owned all land and resources.
Births, marriages, deaths, and other data were recorded in quipus (knotted strings).
When conquered, approximately 25% of the population was resettled.
Leaders of conquered peoples were required to learn Quechua.
People were willing to accommodate the Incas due to the benefits they received.
Existing political systems were kept in place, and people could practice their own religion as long as they acknowledged Inca deities.
Each household was required to provide labor service, working on sun farms or manufacturing goods if they had particular skills.
Chosen women were removed from their homes as young girls and trained to produce corn beer and cloth. Later, they were either sent to marry men of distinction or became priestesses.
The Inca had "gender parallelism," where jobs were respected equally, but men still occupied top positions in political and religious life.
The European Advantage
Western Europe had a unique advantage because it conquered land over the ocean.
It was closer to the Americas than any Asian competitors.
Asian competitors had access to the rich Indian Ocean market, reducing their incentive to travel overseas.
By 1200, European elites were aware of their small position in the world and determined to gain access to it.
The Americas had lots of natural resources, like agricultural lands leading to the long-term growth of the European economy in the 19th and 20th centuries.
Commoners wanted to gain opportunities for wealth and status in the Americas.
Missionaries sought to expand Christianity.
European innovation in mapmaking, navigation, sailing, and ship design allowed them to go to the Americas.
Some subjects of the Aztec Empire resented Mexica domination and helped the Spanish conquer led by Hernán Cortés.
Inca elites welcomed the Spanish and settled down to share rule.
Spanish military victories were not solely of their own making but were the product of alliances.
More importantly, Germans pathogens and disease to which no familiarity in Native Americans was a great success for the Spanish and Europeans.
In the Caribbean, Virginia, and New England, the buildup of immigrants diminished native numbers.
The Great Dying, Little Ice Age, and Columbian Exchange
Great Dying:
The collapse of Native American societies due to diseases such as smallpox, measles, influenza, malaria, and yellow fever.
Native American populations did not begin to grow again until the late 17th century.
Little Ice Age:
A period of unusual cold temperatures from the 13th to 19th centuries, especially in the Northern Hemisphere.
Reasons included natural processes and the abandonment of Native American farmland, leading to unmanaged forests.
General Crisis:
A combination of the Great Dying and the Little Ice Age.
China experienced terrible drought.
Increased rainfall in the Sahara Desert led to growth.
Widespread famine, epidemics, uprisings, and wars caused millions to perish.
Central Mexico suffered from a severe drought for five years, causing maize prices to skyrocket and many people to lack access to water.
Caribbean rains led to breeding mosquitoes.
Climate plays an important role in shaping human history.
The General Crisis led to labor shortages, creating room for immigrant newcomers.
Columbian Exchange:
Europeans and Africans brought plants and animals.
By 1600, 90% of old-growth forests were destroyed.
American food crops spread widely in the Eastern Hemisphere, pushing human population growth.
The Atlantic network was unequally distributed, causing social disruption, slavery, disease, and death in Africa and the Americas.
Western Europe reaped the greatest rewards.
Demographic and Economic Effects of Climate Change
Latitudinal Effects:
For every 5°C drop in temperature north of the temperate zone, summer temperatures decrease.
Crop ripening time increases by 10% for each degree.
Risk of harvest failure and double harvest failure increases.
Consequences of Harvest Failure:
Food shortages lead to increased prices.
Decreased spending on other goods leads to unemployment.
Hunger leads to death.
Increased taxes due to war burden citizens.
Delayed marriages lead to fewer children.
A decrease from 2500 to 2000 calories halves the ability to work.
Increased susceptibility to disease.
A 30% decrease in harvest doubles prices, and a 50% decrease multiplies prices by five.
Comparing Colonial Societies in the Americas
European colonial empires created new societies from the decimation of Native Americans.
New cultures, peoples, plants, and animals emerged.
Mercantilism:
An economic theory where the government served the country's economic interests by encouraging exports and accumulating bullion.
Colonies provided for the "mother country."
Protestant vs. Catholic colonies and settler-dominated agriculture vs. slave labor.
Native American influence.
Already urban vs. rural areas.
Conquest often accompanied transfers of women.
Many Spanish men married elite native women.
Gender differences in major regions of America.
Conquest of Aztec and Inca resulted in the most wealthy, urbanized, and populous regions.
Spanish established major cities, universities, churches, etc.
Economy based in agriculture, with large rural estates.
Native people provided most labor under the encomienda system, which was almost slavery.
17th Century:
The hacienda system emerged, where private owners of large estates employed natives with low wages.
Hierarchy of spanish colonial societies
Male spaniards:
(first ones born in Spain)
Ones born in America
Spanish women
Mestizo
(Spanish men + Indian women)
most of population in the 19th c.
Divided into even more castes
Bottom/ Native Mexican + Peruvian ppl
primary labor force
Pay tributes
Many learned Spanish, converted, and adopted European diets.
Making China an Empire
15th-century China experienced a decline in naval power.
The empire included non-Chinese peoples.
Qing leaders were foreign, coming from Machu.
17th Century:
They took over during the General Crisis.
Maintained ethnic distinctiveness by forbidding marriage between Machu and Chinese.
Used the Chinese language, Confucian teachings, and bureaucratic techniques.
Took over nomadic regions over 80 years.
Russia's growing empire felt like a threat, resolved through the Treaty of Nerchinsk in 1689.
Chinese unification of Eurasia called Qing Expansion.
Ruled separately from China.
Used Mongol aristocrats, Muslim officials, and Buddhist leaders to govern the region, who imitated Chinese ways.
Qing officials did not assimilate people, showed respect.
Excluded nobles from taxes and mandatory labor.
Silk Road became less used due to less trade with Europe and more ocean trade.
Mogol nobles lost land to Chinese merchants.
Nomads could no longer herd animals became poor.
Created by Emperor Yongle in the 15th century as a place where earth and heaven met.
Twice a year, the emperor offered sacrifices for a good harvest.
Sacred ceremonies were banned from commoners.
Based on the mandate of Heaven.
Comparing Cultural Outcomes
Outcomes when two cultures come together:
Annihilation: destruction of a culture.
Segregation: separate people by identity.
Assimilation: less dominated culture adapting to the dominated culture.
Subjugation: the action of bringing someone or something under domination or control.
Integration: blend of cultures.
The Early Modern Period (1450-1750)
The phrase "early modern period" (1450-1750) oversimplifies history.
Initial signs of the modern world included:
Oceanic journeys of Europeans and colonial settlement.
Atlantic Slave Trade.
Global Silver Trade.
Columbian Exchange.
Christianity becoming a global religion.
Russia becoming the world's largest territorial state.
China expanding into inner Asia.
Japanese merchant opportunities in South Asia.
Scientific Revolution.
Beginning of modern population growth (e.g., population doubled from 1400-1800).
Commercial economies in cities.
Stronger, more cohesive states.
Increased military power.
Older patterns:
European power in Asia and Africa was limited.
Islam remained the biggest religion.
Manufacturing in Europe, India, and China was comparable.
Animals, humans, wood, and water provided most energy.
Factories were not established.
Kings and nobles ruled.
Women had no rights.
Economic and Colonial Transformations (1450-1750)
Pivotal period in the development of global trade, laying the groundwork for the modern economic world.
Commercial Revolution:
A period of European economic expansion, colonialism, and mercantilism.
Causes:
Overseas colonies.
Opening of ocean trade routes.
Population growth.
Advancements in maritime technology.
Inflation.
Colonization:
The action or process of settling among and establishing control over the indigenous people of an area.
Mercantilism:
An economy based on trade.
Characteristics of markets/free enterprise:
Business Owners wan to regulate trade to make a profit
Industries are privately owned
Less developed countries are places to get raw material and provide a market for business profits
Consumer choices drive the marketplace/ what is produced
Characteristics of mercantilism:
Manufactured goods are worth more than raw materials
Ruler should regulate trade to make a nation self sufficient
Rules should support industries like shipbuilding
Colonies supply raw material and provide a market for manufactured goods
Sugar Colonies and Settler Colonies
Sugar Colonies:
Very labor-intensive with horrifying conditions.
ex/ heat + fire from cauldrons/ turn raw sugar cane into crystal sugar
Seen as the first modern industry with an international mass market.
80% of captives from Africa ended in the Caribbean and Brazil for sugar manufacturing.
Two-thirds of enslaved people were involved in the cutting of cane.
Settler Colonies:
British lands in New England, Pennsylvania, and New York were seen as "unpromising leftovers."
The world of British settlers was changing much more rapidly than those coming from Catholic, semi-feudal, authoritarian societies.
Many British settlers sought to escape aspects of old European society.
Men sought to escape the class system of old England, but women had to live with largely unlimited male authority.
75% of white males were literate by the 1770s.
Had local self-government.
Trading places w/ South America + Mesoamerican
European and Asian Commerce
Europeans wanted commercial connections with Asia.
Columbus and Vasco da Gama both sought a route to Asia.
The primary motivation was the desire for spices.
Coming out of the Black Death.
National monarchies were learning to govern more effectively.
Old trade system from the Indian Ocean network.
Muslims controlled the supply.
Venice was the chief intermediary for trade.
Other states resented it.
Vasco da Gama and his Portuguese successors found the Indian Ocean with a vast array of peoples – East Africans, Arabs, Persians, Indians, Malays, Chinese and others, trading freely.
In addition to Muslims, Hindus, Buddhists, Christians, Jews and Chinese took part in this trade network.
Establishment of Portuguese Trading Post Empire
The Portuguese did not have goods of a quality for effective competition, but no major power dominated sea lanes in the Indian Ocean AND Portuguese ships carried cannons.
Opening with military advantage → established fortified bases within Indian Ocean – Mombasa, Hormuz, and Melaka, (forcibly)
King of portugal sought monopoly
Merchant ships purchase “cartaz”
Controlled red sea route
But never control more than half spice trade route
Spain was the first to challenge Portugal's control of Asian trade with the Philippines because:
Proximity to China + Spice Islands
Small + Militarily Weak
Missionary effort followed only christian outpost asia
Except South Philippines
Manila Galleons and East India Companies
Caravels were agile and maneuverable, making them well suited for shallow coastal waters and rivers. Galleons were more hydrodynamic and had a lower superstructure, making them more seaworthy and maneuverable than previous ships.
Material being sent from asia → america
Maximie trade in asia
Brought porcelain + silk + ivory + spice + myriad
China → mexico/ for silver
European joint-stock companies were used to raise capital for risky merchant voyages to the Americas and Asia.
Dutch and English both entered Indian Ocean commerce in the early 17th century.
Soon displaced the Portuguese.
Competed with each other.
By 1600, both were run by private trading companies.
Merchants invested and shared risks.
Dutch and British companies were charted by their respective governments.
Given the power to make war and govern conquered people.
Dutch focused on Indonesia.
The English empire focused on India.
A French Company est.1664 Risks -Pirate + weather.
Very regional, not global.
European presence was much less significant in Asia than in the Americas or Africa - no real military threat to great powers of Asia.
Siam (now Thailand) expelled the French in 1688.
Japan:
Shogun = commander in chief in feudal Japan leader because of military power.
Closing off of Japan from 1650 to 1850 – expulsion of missionaries, massive violent persecution of Christians; Also Japanese were barred from travel abroad
European traders were banned, except the Dutch at a single site.
Japan was closed off from Europe but remained connected to China, Korea, and Southeast Asia
Wave of Japanese merchants moved into Southeast Asia in the seventeenth century, using violent means similar to Europeans.
Japanese government refused to support these merchants and their criminal behavior, unlike the European states.
The Globalization of Christianity and the Protestant Reformation
Early modern century cultural and religious transformation.
Christianity was established in America, the Philippines, Siberia, China, Japan, and India.
Christianity persisted in the 19th + 20th century.
A new understanding of the universal was formed alongside a new approach to knowledge in the scientific revolution.
Asian, African, and Native American cultures determined how Christianity would be accepted, rejected, or transformed.
Christianity was largely limited to Europe at the beginning of the 1500s.
The Ibreain peninsula → russia
Split into Roman Catholics (Western + Central Europe) and Eastern Orthodox (Eastern Europe + Russia).
Roman Catholics unity stopped w/The Protestant Reformation.
1517:
Martin Luther debated abuse in the Roman Catholic Church in document Ninety-Five Theses.
It featured a theological basis – new understanding of salvation/faith only.
New religious ideas served to express opposition to the entire social order → German peasant revolts 1520s.
Women were attracted to Protestantism but were not offered a greater role in the church or society. It was an alternative to marriage.
Reading the bible for women → stimulated education → but seen as just wives and mother.
Thirty Years War: Catholic vs. Protestant struggle.
Began in the Holy Roman Empire.
15-30% of the German population died.
Peace of Westphalia shuffled boundaries and authorized each state to control religious affairs within its territory.
Catholic Reformation (Counter-Reformation):
Council of Trent clarified and affirmed things that Protestants had rejected.
New religious orders (Jesuits).
Religion motivated European political and economic expansion. Catholic Spanish + Portuguese crusading.
Colonial settlers and traders sought to replicate religion in newly conquered homelands.
Protestant version of Christianity in New England with no interest in converting native people.
Missionary orders generally performed missionary work among the portuguese → africa Asia and spanish and french → Americans.
The greatest success of missionary efforts was in Spanish America and the Philippines, due to the overwhelming European presence and absence of literate religions.
Comparative chart of Catholic and Protestant beliefs:
\begin{array}{|l|l|l|}
\hline
& \textbf{Catholic} & \textbf{Protestant} \
\hline
\textbf{Religious Authority} & \text{The bible and church tradition} & \text{The bible alone} \
& \text{as defined by pope and church councils} & \
\hline
\textbf{Role of the Pope} & \text{Leader of the church} & \text{Authority of the pope denied} \
\hline
\textbf{Ordination of clergy} & \text{Apostolic succession;} & \text{Apostolic succession denied;}\
& \text{direct line between origin apostles} & \text{ordination by individual} \
& \text{and all subsequently ordained clergy} & \text{congregations or denominations} \
\hline
\textbf{Role of clergy} & \text{Priests are generally celibate;} & \text{Ministers may marry; priesthood} \
& \text{sharp distinction between priest} & \text{of all believers; clergy have} \
& \text{and laypeople; priest are mediators} & \text{different functions (to preach} \
& \text{between god and humankind} & \text{administer sacraments) but no} \
& & \text{distinct spiritual status} \
\hline
\textbf{Salvation} & \text{Importance of church sacraments} & \text{Importance of faith alone;}\
& \text{as channels of god’s grace} & \text{God’s grace is freely and} \
& & \text{directly granted to believers} \
\hline
\textbf{Status of mary} & \text{Highly prominent, ranking just below} & \text{Less prominent; Mary’s}\
& \text{jesus; provides constant intercession} & \text{intercession on behalf of}\
& \text{for believers} & \text{the faithful denied} \
\hline
\textbf{Role of saints} & \text{Prominent spiritual exemplars} & \text{Generally disdain as a source of}\
& \text{and intermediaries between god} & \text{idolatry; saints refer to all}\
& \text{and humankind} & \text{christians} \
\hline
\textbf{prayer} & \text{To God, but often through of with} & \text{To God alone; no role for Mary}\
& \text{mary and saints} & \text{and saints} \
\hline
\end{array}
The European Moment (1750-1900)
The period from 1750-1900, often called the "long 19th century," marked an emerging modern era from the Scientific and Industrial Revolutions in Western Europe.
The growing ability of modern societies resulted in enormous power over the whole world, making this a major turning point.
Western Europeans and their North American offspring became far more prominent, creating a "European moment."
The European Moment operated on a global scale.
The rise of Europe to a position of global dominance was not an easy process and fostered lots of Rebellion.
People around the world used European ideas for their own purposes.
Not the only prominence on world stage.
Atlantic Revolutions in a Global Context
Many parts of the world witnessed political and social upheaval → world crisis or converging revolutions.
Alatinc revolutions North America + France + Haiti + Latin America took place in a larger global framework andAtlantic revolutions were distinctive such as:
Costly wars strained European imperial states i.e Britain, Spain, & France i.e The seven years’ war = costly → increase taxes in colonies → revolution.
Revolutions were connected to one another in that Leaders like American revolutionary leader Thomas Jefferson/ US ambassador to France and Simon Bolivar visited Haiti → received military aid
Influenced by Enlightenment ideas such a Enlightenment ideas of liberty/ influenced revolution
French Revolution
France 1789/ thousands of french soldiers/ helped america revolutionary war → brink of bankruptcy
Louis 16ths/ called estates general
clergy/ 1 vote
Nobility/ 1 vote
commoners/1 vote/ 98% of population
Declarations of the right of man and citizen declared that all citizen should have same right
Radicals many of participant of national assembly
American revolution/ tensions of colonial relations with distant power
French revolution conflicts within society
French revolutions very violent than american
National assembly end feudalism + slavery
1793: king louis + marie antoinette executed, followed by the reign of terror led by robespierre + committee of safety saw Enemies of revolution killed at guillotine; made a new calendar/ year 1 starting beginning of french revolution; briefly passed male suffrage; raised question
Storming of bastille/ women marched to palace of versailles and wanted royal family to return to paris
US became world power at 19th century /inspired other revolutions and spread conquest under Napoleon
Eurocentrism
Definition:
Eurocentrism is a perspective that emphasizes Europe. - From 1750-1900
Many revolutions happened such as:
Scientific Revolution
French Revolution
Enlightenment
Authors:
Should address other stories + people by including others arts, tech ,etc., adaptation + adoption of European concepts and be more impartial ( not “herorizing” Europe) by using primary sources
Problem:
Avoid the how
Ignores other empires
Ignore other changes, innovations
Erases minimizes others’ accomplishment, losses, failures and it has a map which depicts Europe as continent, at center and other stories become peripheral, tangential, in service of as well as a Winner + losers
Tensions Before the Haitian Revolution
Santo Domingo:
Spanish colony on the eastern side of Hispaniola.
Saint Domingue - French colony on the western side of the island. very profitable for France with goods exported to France
1791:
500k enslaved people.
32k white people
700k ppl brought forced from africa
Enslaved Africans influenced culture by in Religious + agriculture + lang + political ideas + military knowledge, some enslave people consider elite by having position of authority (ex/ supervisors)
Affranchis freedom of color
White ppl wanted to limit their power
Code noir code enforced upon the enslaved
Enslave people consider property, not allowed to assemble minimum amount of food max number of hours
Vodou: religion practiced by the majority of Haiti instill control of their life form of resistance brought people together
Enslaved people resisted
Sucide/ infantcide/ cultural activities/ Running away
Haitian Revolution Goals
Enslaved people:
Freedom
Workers' rights within the slave system, such as food and protection from torture.
Expel the French.
Equal rights for free people of color apply enlightenment values and gains from french revolution end class system wanted benefits like trade.
Maroons wanted to live in a society With resistance to slaveholders; wanted autonomy- economic + deference that they could live under + on + freedom. Spain British and United States what part of st. Domingue.
Toussaint Louverture and the Haitian Revolution
Toussaint Louverture:
Former slave turned revolutionary leader who was known for his military genius and strategic leadership.
United enslaved Africans and free people of color in the fight for freedom.
Military tactics
Louverture was a skilled general, leading guerilla warefare against european forces.
Diplomatic Skills:
Managed to negotiate with the French, Spanish, and British while keeping the Haitian cause alive.
Initially sought to establish autonomy within the French empire but rejected slavery and colonialism.
The Haitian Revolution:
Occurred between 1791–1804, against French colonial rule.
Led to the establishment of Haiti as an independent nation in 1804.
fought freedom from colonialism and the abolition of slavery.
Louverture played a key role in turning the revolution into a symbol for global liberty and equality.
Haiti (then Saint-Domingue) was a French colony based on plantations and slave labor.
Slaves were exploited in brutal conditions, working on sugar and coffee plantations.
The French Revolution(1789) inspired revolutionaries haiti, as its ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity resonated with enslaved people
Internal Divisions within the revolutionary forces:
tensions between different factions (enslaved vs. free people of color).
External Threats: faced battles against French, British, and Spanish forces.
Captured and exiled and died in a French prison in 1803, just before Haiti's declaration independence in 1804.:
Napoleon promised autonomy but later betrayed Louverture, sending him to prison in France.
Legacy of Louverture and the Haitian Revolution
Symbol of Resistance:
Louverture is now a symbol of freedom and resilience.
Haitian Revolution inspired abolitionist movemen throughout the Americas and Haiti became the first independent nation in Latin America and the Caribbean, the first post-colonial republic in the Western Hemisphere, and the first nation to abolish slavery.
Latin American Revolution
Latin American Revolution shaped preceding events in N. America, Haiti, and france
British N. America vs natives born elites (creoles)
18th: Insulted by spanish monarch efforts greater power over colonies example heaver taxes creoles learned enlightenment ideas. Only lead to scattered + uncoordinated protests in colonies b/c authoritarian while british divide class system.
North America violence directed against British driven by land + food process, lead by Miguel Hidalgo + José Morelsos against Creole landowners/ army from the church (1821) and seen as leftovers. (required support of the peop0e)
In the 1780s Tupac Amaru led a rebellion in peru driven by Creole sponsors of independence/ Simon Bolivar:Required support of the people’ required support of the people. *not independence
Aftermath of Revolutions
Repercussions of atlantic revolution = far beyond were it started like; Britain loss → fueled interest in asia; British colonial rule in India + opium war in china; Napoleon tried to conquer egypt and Western reform of ottoman empire
1790-1890 transformative with slavery loss of legitimacy which saw Enlightenment thinkers such as religion push for some religions example Protestants + Quaker, the success with a successful economies example new England and thatActions of enslaved also help and slavery. Abolitionist movement lead with Britain pressure on govt for sale enslaved ppl+ ban slavery which after 1843/ britain freed all enslaved people which had British naval intercepting illegal slave ships→ sent people to freetown in W Africa.
Pushed major states of W. Europe + US + argentina enlarge voting publics/ universal male suffrage in the 1825 russia wanted to est constitutional regime /Failed
Nations and Nationalism
After atlantic revolution/ new type of human community = nations or divide into separate nations/ which each own culture such a aFrench revolution/ solvernight with people, Napoleon's conquests/ national resistance parts of Europe which saw European nations in the 19th century increasingly fighting
The rise of nationalism/ facilitated europe modern transformation, encouraging + greeks Serbs asset independence
Nationalist Ideologies and Feminist Beginnings
Nationalism took on many political ideologies such as;
Supporters of liberal democracy + representative govt saw wider involvement political life and Nationalism in germany / racial terms + exclude some
Group of women called into question/