Development of the English Language

The English language began its development as an independent tongue with the migration of Germanic people (Angles, Saxons, and Jutes) from Western Europe (modern-day Denmark and northern Germany) across the English Channel to Britain during the fifth and sixth centuries AD. These invaders brought not only their native tongue but also the Latin words they had borrowed from the Romans.
Their language is known as Old English or Anglo-Saxon and was a member of the Germanic branch of the Indo-European languages. It gradually superseded the Celtic dialects in most of southern Britain. Many Old English words survived with some linguistic change to form the basic vocabulary of English. Words borrowed from other languages—mostly Latin, French, and Greek—have been added over time.
In the seventh century AD, after the establishment of the first monastery in 598 AD, inhabitants of Britain gradually converted to Christianity. Latin, as the language of the Western Church, was spoken, written, and read in churches, schools, and monasteries, bringing many Latin words into the evolving English language, especially religious terms often derived from Greek.
Beginning in the eighth century AD, the Viking invasions introduced additional words of North Germanic origin. Living alongside the Anglo-Saxons and eventually assimilated by them, the Norse and Danish invaders left a marked impact on England and the English language.
It is noted that, in 1697 AD, writer Daniel Defoe described English as "your Roman-Saxon-Danish-Norman-English," highlighting the blended origins of the language.
The Norman invasion in 1066 AD brought a French-speaking aristocracy to England. For the next about 150 years, French was the official spoken and written language of the governing class. During this period, French existed alongside English but had little direct effect on the core language. Between 1200 to 1500 AD (roughly three centuries following the expulsion of the Normans), English regained dominance and many words were borrowed from French because its vocabulary was richer. Writers and educated people began to look to French as a source of words and concepts lacking in English. This era marks the transition to the Middle English period.
With the Renaissance (1400-1600 AD) came a revival of classical scholarship. English words began to be formed directly from Latin and Greek, no longer primarily through the intermediary of French. Beginning around 1500 AD, ancient Greek writings were read in their original language in England. This renewal created an awareness of the impoverished state of English and the difficulty of expressing in English ideas that were easily expressed in Latin or Greek. As a result, many words were borrowed from Greek and Latin, sometimes with changes, and new words were created that combined Latin and Greek elements. Other borrowings came from French and Italian. The English of this period is now known as Modern English.
The extensive borrowing of words from Latin and Greek that began around 1500 AD continued for hundreds of years and continues today. As medicine and science advanced during and after the Renaissance—continuing to the present day—new terms were needed to describe discoveries and inventions. Medical scientists turned to early Greek and Roman physicians (notably Hippocrates, Galen, and Celsus) and borrowed terms from their medical treatises. For example, Hippocrates used terms like apoplexy, hypochondria, dysentery, ophthalmia, epilepsy, and asthma to describe conditions.

- When suitable words did not exist for newly described diseases, modern physicians turned to the vocabulary of ancient languages to create terms. The language used by Linnaeus and other Renaissance scientists is often referred to as New Latin. New Latin includes words formed in the form and on the analogy of Latin words (e.g., $ext{natrium}$ for sodium, borrowed from Arabic) or words that assign new meanings to existing Latin roots (e.g., $ext{cancer}$ from crab, or $ext{bacillus}$ from bacillus, a small rod). New Latin is a rich source of biological terminology. Examples in this text include Trichinella spiralis (the species causing trichinosis) and Salmonella (the genus named after Daniel E. Salmon).

### HIPPOCRATES

- Hippocrates, born in $460\,\text{BC}$ , was a Greek physician who lived on the Aegean island of Cos. He is the most famous ancient physician and is regarded as the father of medicine. However, little is actually known about his life beyond his fame. The Hippocratic Corpus, a collection of about sixty medical treatises attributed to Hippocrates, likely reflects the work of many physicians rather than Hippocrates alone. He is recognized for separating superstition from medicine, positing that illness has rational explanations and can be treated, based on observation and study of the human body. He was the first to attempt to record his experiences as a physician for posterity. The Hippocratic Oath, though not directly attributable to him, is said to reflect his philosophy and principles.

### THE HIPPOCRATIC OATH
> I swear by Apollo the physician, and Aesculapius, and Hygeia, and Panacea, and all the gods and goddesses, that according to my ability and judgment, I will keep this oath and its stipulation-to reckon him who taught me this art equally dear to me as my parents, to share my substance with him, and to relieve his necessities if required; to look upon his offspring in the same footing as my own brothers, and to teach them this art if they shall wish to learn it, without fee or stipulation, and that by precept, lecture, and every other mode of instruction, I will impart a knowledge of the art to my own sons, and those of my teachers, and to disciples bound by a stipulation and oath according to the law of medicine, but to none other.
> "I will follow that system of regimen which, according to my ability and judgment, I consider for the benefit of my patients, and abstain from whatever is deleterious and mischievous. I will give no deadly medicine to anyone if asked, nor suggest any such counsel; and in like manner I will not give to a woman a pessary to produce abortion. With purity and with holiness I will pass my life and practice my art. I will not cut persons laboring under the stone, but will leave this to be done by men who are practitioners of this work. Into whatever houses I enter, I will go into them for the benefit of the sick and I will abstain from every voluntary act of mischief and corruption; and, further, from the seduction of females or males, of freemen and slaves. Whatever, in connection with my professional practice, or not in connection with it, I see or hear, in the life of men, which ought not to be spoken of abroad, I will not divulge, as reckoning that all such should be kept secret.

- > While I continue to keep this Oath unviolated, may it be granted to me to enjoy life and the practice of this art, respected by all men, in all times. But, should I trespass and violate this Oath, may the reverse be my lot. (From Venes, D. Taber's Cyclopedic Medical Dictionary. 19th ed. F. A. Davis. 2001, pp. 949-950, with permission.)

### GALEN

- Galen was born in $129\,\text{AD}$ in Pergamum, Asia Minor. He studied medicine at the Asclepium in his hometown, then in Smyrna and Alexandria, and came to Rome in $162\,\text{AD}$ , where he remained until his death, writing philosophical treatises and medical books. He was named court physician by Emperor Marcus Aurelius. Galen wrote extensively on anatomy, physiology, and general medicine, relying on available training, dissection of human corpses, and animal experiments. His work profoundly influenced Renaissance physicians; his theories on the flow of blood remained unchallenged until William Harvey’s discovery of circulation in the 17th century.

### CELSUS

- Aulus Cornelius Celsus was a Roman encyclopedist who, under Emperor Tiberius ( $14\text{ AD} - 37\text{ AD}$ ), wrote a lengthy work covering agriculture, military tactics, medicine, rhetoric, and possibly philosophy and law. Aside from fragments, only his eight books on medicine survive. He appears to have been a layman writing for other laymen rather than a professional physician; in his surgical treatises he relied on material from other sources and had little firsthand medical experience. Celsus was highly esteemed during the Renaissance, perhaps because of his writing style.

### UNIT 1: GREEK-DERIVED MEDICAL TERMINOLOGY
#### GREEK NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES
#### NOUNS OF THE THIRD DECLENSION
#### BUILDING GREEK VOCABULARY I: NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES
#### GREEK VERBS
#### BUILDING GREEK VOCABULARY II
#### BUILDING GREEK VOCABULARY III

- #### BUILDING GREEK VOCABULARY IV

## Page 1–2 Summary of Key Transitions across Eras
Old English (Anglo-Saxon) emerges from Germanic roots; Latin and Greek loanwords enter primarily via religious and scholarly contexts during the Christian era; Norse (Viking) influence adds North Germanic vocabulary; Norman French then layers a vast influx; eventually Middle English consolidates a richer vocabulary formed through direct Latin/Greek coinages during the Renaissance; Modern English arises with ongoing scientific vocabulary growth through New Latin.
The Renaissance marks a shift from indirect borrowing (via French) to direct formation of words from Latin and Greek roots, accelerating the expansion of vocabulary for science, medicine, and philosophy. This culminates in the modern language's capacity to express a wide range of ideas, including technical and specialized terms.
The scientific vocabulary of medicine and biology is heavily shaped by New Latin, which both mirrors and extends the classical Latin lexicon, enabling precise naming of organisms, diseases, and anatomical terms. Examples include Trichinella spiralis and Salmonella, named after individuals or descriptive Latin roots.

- The figure of Hippocrates anchors the medical tradition with an emphasis on rational explanations for illness and the separation of medicine from superstition; Galen and Celsus then provide foundational medical literature that influenced both Renaissance thought and modern medical terminology.

## The Hippocratic Oath

- The Hippocratic Oath embodies ethical commitments, including patient welfare, non-maleficence, confidentiality, and professional integrity. It emphasizes teaching the art of medicine to successors without improper fees, maintaining patient trust, and avoiding harm. The oath historically reflects the physician's obligation to balance knowledge, power, and virtue across generations. The text reproduced here is drawn from Venes, D. Taber’s Cyclopedic Medical Dictionary, 19th ed. (F. A. Davis, 2001, pp. 949-950), with permission.

## Galen

- Galen’s career in Pergamum and Rome, his extensive writings on anatomy and physiology, and his methods—combining dissection, animal experiments, and earliest systematic clinical observation—made him the foremost medical authority in the Western world for many centuries. His ideas about the circulation of the blood stood as authoritative until the 17th century when Harvey demonstrated otherwise.

## Celsus

- Aulus Cornelius Celsus contributed a comprehensive encyclopedia that included medical topics. Although likely not a professional physician, his surgical and medical writings were highly influential during the Renaissance and helped shape later medical thought and terminology.

## Greek-Derived Medical Terminology (Unit 1)
This section outlines the major pathways by which Greek roots, forms, and word-building patterns contribute to medical vocabulary, including:
- Greek nouns and adjectives
- Nouns of the third declension
- Building Greek vocabulary I: nouns and adjectives
- Greek verbs

- - Building Greek vocabulary II, III, IV

### Key Takeaways
- English is a historically layered language, formed by successive waves of invasion, conquest, scholarship, and science—each layer adding terms, structures, and nuances.
- Latin and Greek increasingly provided direct vocabulary for specialized domains, especially after the Renaissance, leading to Modern English’s rich scientific lexicon.
- Important historical figures (Hippocrates, Galen, and Celsus) and texts laid groundwork that persists in medical terminology and ethics.

- - The Renaissance is a pivotal turning point when direct borrowing from classical languages becomes more common, enabling more precise and varied expression in science, medicine, and philosophy.

Key dates to remember: $55\,\text{BC}$ , $54\,\text{BC}$ ,

- $≈100\,\text{years later}$ , $5^{\text{th}}-6^{\text{th}}\ \text{centuries AD}$ , $598\,\text{AD}$ , $8^{\text{th}}\ \text{century AD}$ , $1697\,\text{AD}$ , $1066\,\text{AD}$ , $1200-1500\,\text{AD}$ , $1400-1600\,\text{AD}$ , $1500\,\text{AD}$ , $460\,\text{BC}$ , $129\,\text{AD}$ , $162\,\text{AD}$ , $14-37\,\text{AD}$

### Notation of New Latin examples in the text
- $\text{natrium}$ (sodium)
- $\text{cancer}$ (crab) or $\text{bacillus}$ (a small rod or staff)
- Trichinella spiralis and Salmonella as named entities (
organisms and genera) demonstrating the direct borrowing and naming patterns in New Latin.