Bases de la Anatomía: Types, Terminology, and Movements
Classifications and Types of Anatomy
Anatomy is categorized into several distinct disciplines based on the approach taken to study the human body. Anatomía Sistémica (Systemic Anatomy) is the study of the body's various organ systems and apparatuses. Anatomía Regional (Regional Anatomy) focuses on specific sections or segments of the body. Anatomía Topográfica (Topographical Anatomy) involves dividing the body into smaller, localized zones to study their spatial relationships. Anatomía Fisiológica (Physiological Anatomy) studies the body by relating organs to their specific biological functions. Anatomía Aplicada (Applied Anatomy), also referred to as clinical anatomy, focuses on the practical application of anatomical knowledge in medical and surgical contexts.
Systemic Anatomy: The Study of Organ Systems
Anatomía Sistémica examines the body by organizing it into functional systems. The Sistema tegumentario (Integumentary System) includes the layers of the skin, such as the epidermis and dermis. The Sistema Óseo (Skeletal System) focuses on the framework of bones. The Sistema Muscular (Muscular System) handles movement and stability. The Sistema Nervioso (Nervous System) governs signaling and control. The Sistema Endocrino (Endocrine System) manages hormonal regulation throughout the body. The Sistema Circulatorio (Circulatory System) involves the heart and blood vessels, while the Sistema Linfático (Lymphatic System) manages fluid balance and immune responses. The Sistema Respiratorio (Respiratory System) is dedicated to gas exchange. The Sistema Digestivo (Digestive System) processes nutrients, and the Sistema Urinario (Urinary System) handles waste excretion and fluid regulation.
Regional and Topographical Anatomy
Anatomía Regional studies the body by dividing it into large structural sections. These regions include the Cabeza (Head), Cuello (Neck), Tórax (Thorax), Abdomen (Abdomen), Pelvis (Pelvis), Extremidades superiores (Upper Extremities), Extremidades Inferiores (Lower Extremities), and the Dorso or espalda (Dorsum or Back). In contrast, Anatomía Topográfica examines smaller, highly localized structures. For example, a topographical study of the eye includes the Pupila (Pupil), Párpado (Eyelid), Iris, Esclerótica (Sclera), Músculo recto superior (Superior rectus muscle), Tendón del músculo oblicuo superior (Superior oblique muscle tendon), Nervio óptico (Optic nerve), Músculo oblicuo inferior (Inferior oblique muscle), Músculo recto inferior (Inferior rectus muscle), Retina, Cristalino (Lens), Córnea, and Conjuntiva.
Physiological Anatomy and Organ Relationships
Anatomía Fisiológica correlates structure with function by looking at organ clusters and their pathways. This includes studying internal structures like the Conducto Hepático Común (Common Hepatic Duct), Vena Porta (Portal Vein), Vena Cava Inferior, and Vena Cava Superior. It details the cardiovascular landscape, including the Cayado de la Aorta (Aortic Arch), Tronco Pulmonar (Pulmonary Trunk), Arteria Pulmonar Izquierda (Left Pulmonary Link), and Venas Pulmonares (Pulmonary Veins). Cardiac structures such as the Orificio Auriculoventricular (Atrioventricular Orifice), Nódulo Auriculoventricular (Atrioventricular Node), and the Fascículo de Hiss (Bundle of His) are essential components. The study also encompasses the biliary system, featuring the Conducto Cístico (Cystic Duct), Vesícula Biliar (Gallbladder), Conducto Colédoco (Common Bile Duct), and the Papila Duodenal (Duodenal Papilla).
Standard Anatomical Positions
The standard Posición Anatómica (Anatomical Position) serves as the universal reference point for descriptions. There are several variation positions used in clinical practice. Decúbito dorsal or supino (Supine) describes the body lying on the back with the face pointing upward. Decúbito ventral or prono (Prone) describes the body lying on the stomach with the back upward and the face downward. Decúbito lateral describes the body resting on one of its sides; clinical notes typically specify which side the patient is resting upon. The Fowler position involves the body in a decubitus state but with the head elevated significantly higher than the feet. Conversely, the Trendelemburg (Trendelenburg) position features the body in decubitus with the head positioned lower than the feet.
Anatomical Planes of Section
Planes are imaginary surfaces used to divide the body into sections. The Plano Sagital (Sagittal Plane) is a vertical plane that runs through the body, dividing it into left and right portions. The Plano Transversal (Transverse Plane) is a horizontal plane that is perpendicular to the sagittal plane, dividing the body into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) parts. The Plano Coronal or Frontal (Coronal or Frontal Plane) is a vertical plane perpendicular to the sagittal plane that divides the body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) sections.
Anatomical Axes and Directional Terminology
Anatomical axes describe the lines around which movement occurs or through which the body is measured. The Eje Sagital (Sagittal Axis), also known as the antero-posterior or ventro-dorsal axis, passes through the body from front to back. The Eje Longitudinal (Longitudinal Axis), also called the cráneo-caudal or supero-inferior axis, runs from the highest point of the head down to the feet through the center of the body. The Eje Transverso (Transverse Axis), or latero-lateral axis, crosses the body from side to side, perpendicular to the sagittal plane.
Directional terminology helps locate structures. Superficial refers to a position closer to the body's periphery or surface, while Profundo (Deep) refers to a position farther from the surface. Medial describes structures closer to the midline, whereas Lateral describes those moving away from it. Ventral, Anterior, or Palmar refers to structures toward the front. Dorsal, Posterior, or Plantar refers to structures toward the back. Proximal indicates a position closer to the point of attachment or midline, while Distal indicates a position further away. Craneal or Superior refers to the head-ward direction, and Caudal or Inferior refers to the foot-ward direction. Terms like Unilateral (one side), Bilateral (both sides), Ipsilateral (the same side), and Contralateral (the opposite side) describe lateral relationships.
Anatomical Lines and Regions of the Thorax and Abdomen
The body is mapped using specific lines and regions for clinical assessment. Posterior thoracic lines include the Línea escapular (Scapular line), Línea paravertebral (Paravertebral line), Línea medio escapular (Mid-scapular line), and Línea media vertebral posterior (Posterior mid-vertebral line). The abdomen is divided into nine specific regions: the Epigastrio (Epigastrium), Mesogastrio (Mesogastrium or umbilical region), and Hipogastrio (Hypogastrium). Flanking these are the Hipocondrio derecho and izquierdo (Right and Left Hypochondrium), Flanco derecho and izquierdo (Right and Left Flank), and Fosa ilíaca derecha and izquierda (Right and Left Iliac Fossa). Alternatively, it can be viewed as four quadrants: Upper Right, Upper Left, Lower Right, and Lower Left.
Kinesiology: Anatomical Movements
Movement is described relative to the anatomical position. Flexión (Flexion) involves bending or decreasing the angle between bones. Extensión (Extension) involves straightening or increasing that angle. Abducción (Abduction) is the separation or movement away from the medial plane within the frontal plane, whereas Aducción (Adduction) is movement toward the medial plane. Rotación (Rotation) is the turning of a body part around its longitudinal axis, such as turning the head. Circunducción (Circumduction) is a circular movement combining flexion, extension, abduction, and adduction.
Specialized movements of the forearm include Supinación (Supination), where the radius rotates laterally so the palm faces anteriorly, and Pronación (Pronation), where the radius rotates medially so the palm faces posteriorly. For the feet, Inversión (Inversion) moves the sole toward the medial plane (often accompanied by plantar flexion), while Eversión (Eversion) moves the sole away from the medial plane (often accompanied by dorsal flexion). In the hand, Oposición (Opposition) brings the thumb tip toward another finger tip, and Reposición (Reposition) returns it to the anatomical position. Mandibular or lingual movements include Protrusión (Protrusion) for anterior movement and Retrusión (Retrusion) for posterior movement. Finally, Elevación (Elevation) moves a part superiorly, and Depresión (Depression) moves a part inferiorly.
Bibliographic Reference
These notes are based on the following source: MOORE, K.L. Anatomía con Orientación Clínica, Ed. Médica Panamericana-Sans Tache- Williams et Wilkins, Buenos Aires, Edición, .