Nationalism, German Unification & The German Empire

I. Background Ideas

(a) Enlightenment

  • Cosmopolitanism: The Enlightenment promoted a worldview that transcended local or national loyalties, emphasizing universal reason and shared humanity. This perspective was inherently cosmopolitan.

  • Key Political Idea: Popular Sovereignty: A fundamental principle emerged that all political power originates from "the people" (popular sovereignty), rather than from divine right, inherited tradition, or aristocratic privilege. This challenged existing monarchical and aristocratic structures.

  • Citizen-State Relationship: The Enlightenment prompted critical questions about how citizens should relate to their state. This included debates on forms of government, such as direct or representative democracy, and the crucial importance of protecting citizens' inherent rights.

  • The Question of Political Identity: A more profound problem inherent in the concept of popular sovereignty was defining "who are the people?" and understanding the nature of the relationships among members of such a public. This gave rise to the question of (political) identity.

  • Rousseau's View on Freedom: Jean-Jacques Rousseau argued that for true freedom, it is essential for individuals to identify strongly with their community. This idea highlighted the importance of collective identity for political liberty.

  • Nation-Building alongside State-Building: Beyond merely establishing state structures, there was a parallel and crucial process of "nation-building." This aimed to replace the diverse, localized identities prevalent under the Ancien Régime with a unified national identity.

  • Challenges in Multi-ethnic Contexts: This process of nation-building was particularly challenging in situations where political boundaries (the state) did not align with national identities, such as in multi-ethnic empires or when a single nation was spread across multiple states.

(b) Romanticism

  • Johann Gottfried Herder (1744-1803):

    • A prominent figure of early Romanticism, he was a philosopher and pastor, living in the Baltic area.

    • Critique of the Enlightenment: Herder critiqued certain aspects of the Enlightenment, particularly its emphasis on a universal, French-dominated aristocratic (court) culture.

    • Appreciation of the Particular: He championed the value of the particular, unique, and organically developed. Herder believed that nations, through a historical process, had developed unique cultures, with language and shared stories being their key manifestations.

    • Continuation of Enlightenment Ideas: Despite his critiques, Herder also continued certain Enlightenment ideals, specifically regarding emancipation and the progress of mankind.

    • Cultural, Non-political Nationalism: His form of nationalism was primarily cultural, focusing on shared heritage and identity rather than immediate political statehood.

II. German Nationalism until Frankfurt (1815-1849)

The German Confederation (Bund) After 1815

  • Conservative Restoration: Following the defeat of Napoleon in 1815, Europe entered a period of conservative restoration, aiming to re-establish pre-revolutionary political orders. Prussian and other German governments were largely indifferent or actively hostile to the idea of German unification (the "German question").

  • Political Division: The territory that would become Germany remained divided into 39 distinct states, each with its own government and policies.

  • Austrian-Prussian Rivalry ("German Dualism"): A significant source of tension within the Confederation was the ongoing rivalry between the two most powerful German states, Austria and Prussia, over leadership and influence.

  • Religious Tension: The region was also marked by tension between its predominantly Protestant and Catholic populations.

  • Cultural Unity: Despite political and religious divisions, there was a foundational cultural unity based on a shared language, significantly influenced by Luther's Bible translation, and a developing common literary culture.

Nationalism in the Confederation

  • Napoleonic Influence: Nationalism in Germany was significantly stirred by the experience of Napoleonic occupation, which fostered a sense of common grievance and desire for self-determination.

  • Myth of Leipzig: The "myth of the German people beating Napoleon at Leipzig" emerged, creating a powerful unifying narrative of collective effort and victory against a foreign oppressor.

  • Repression: In Prussia, the conservative restoration led to repression, with no liberal constitution being granted, stifling political liberalism and nationalist aspirations for a unified, free state.

  • "Kulturnation" Movement: A nationalist movement developed largely "outside" the official state structures, known as the "Kulturnation" (cultural nation), focusing on shared cultural heritage rather than political boundaries.

    • Societies: This movement manifested through various societies, such as Turnvereine (gymnastic clubs founded by Friedrich Ludwig Jahn) and student associations (Burschenschaften), which promoted German identity and unity.

    • Search for the "Volksgeist": There was a concerted effort to discover and define the "Volksgeist" (spirit of the people) through mythology, notably exemplified by the collection and publication of German fairytales by the Grimm brothers.

    • National Symbols: Key symbols were identified and promoted to foster national identity, including the Cologne Cathedral (representing German architectural prowess and history), Hermann the Cherusker (a historical figure who defeated Roman legions, symbolizing German resistance), and the Rhine River (a natural and cultural symbol of Germanness).

  • Emergence of a Political Programme: Alongside the cultural awakening, a clear political programme began to emerge. This advocated for "Freedom and unity," directly opposing the prevailing conservative authoritarian order and the political fragmentedness of the German states.

Economic Unification as a Catalyst

  • 1818: Prussian Customs Law: Prussia initiated economic reforms by enacting a customs law that eliminated internal tariffs within its own territories.

  • 1834: Customs Union (Zollverein): This initiative expanded significantly with the formation of the Zollverein. Many Southern, Middle, and Northern German states joined this customs union, which removed internal customs barriers and established common external tariffs. Critically, Austria remained outside this union, highlighting Prussia's growing economic leadership.

  • 1840 Onwards: Industrial Take-off: The period from 1840 saw an industrial take-off under Prussian leadership, marked by expansion in railway networks, increased trade and production, rapid urbanization, and improved communication. This economic development stimulated a civic culture and the growth of national and liberal movements. It also brought to the forefront the "social question" concerning the impact of industrialization on society and labor.

The Frankfurt Assembly (1848): Failure of Liberal Nationalism

  • Failure of the Assembly: The Frankfurt Assembly, convened in 1848, sought to unify Germany under a liberal constitution but ultimately failed.

  • Reasons for Failure:

    • Internal Divisions: The assembly suffered from significant internal disagreements among its delegates.

    • National Question: A major division was over the territorial definition of Germany: the "Little Germany" (Kleindeutschland) solution, which excluded Austria and favored Prussian leadership, versus the "Great Germany" (Großdeutschland) solution, which included Austria.

    • Liberal Divisions: Delegates were also divided on the nature of the liberal constitution itself, including debates on how democratic it should be and what role monarchs should play in a unified state.

    • Social Question: The assembly struggled with how to address the surging "social question" arising from industrialization, debating whether and how to solve issues like poverty and labor exploitation.

    • Lack of Enforcement: A critical weakness was the absence of any means of enforcement for its decisions and the lack of a "natural" political center or army to back its authority.

    • Outcome: The failure of the Frankfurt Assembly is often seen as the "Failure of liberal nationalism" and posed the question: did this failure set Germany on a distinctive historical path (the "German Sonderweg")?

  • Frederick William IV's Rejection (1849): When offered the emperor's crown by the Frankfurt Assembly in 1849, Frederick William IV of Prussia famously rejected it. He called the offered crown:
    > 'Das Ding, von dem wir reden, trägt nicht das Zeichen des Heiligen Kreuzes, drückt nicht den Stempel von Gottes Gnade aufs Haupt, ist keine Krone. Es ist das eiserne Halsband der Knechtschaft, durch welche der Sohn von mehr denn 24 Regenten, Kurfürsten und Königen, das Haupt von 16 Millionen, der Herr des treuesten und tapfersten Heeres der Welt, der Revolution zum Leibeigenen gemacht werden würde. Un das sei ferne!'
    > 'The thing we are talking about does not bear the mark of the Holy Cross, does not press the mark of God's grace on its head, is not a crown. It is the iron bond of servitude, by which the son of more than twenty-four regents, electors, and kings, the head of sixteen millions, the lord of the most faithful and brave army in the world, would be made a serf of the revolution. Let it be far off!'
    This statement underscored his rejection of a crown originating from popular sovereignty and liberalism, preferring legitimacy from divine grace and tradition.

III. The German Sonderweg: Authoritarian Rule in a United Germany (1849-1914)

Otto von Bismarck, the Iron Chancellor

  • Political Role: Bismarck served as Prussian Chancellor from 1862 to 1871 and then as Chancellor of the German Empire from 1871 to 1890.

  • Authoritarian Prussia: During his tenure, Prussia remained an authoritarian state. It was characterized by the dominance of the Junker class (landowning aristocracy) and the monarch.

  • Limited Parliament: The Prussian parliament (Landtag) had severely limited influence, particularly over the army and, in practice, over taxation.

  • Strategy of "Defensive Modernization": Bismarck's primary strategy was to defend the power position of his Junker class within Prussia and Prussia's hegemony within Germany (and subsequently, Europe). He achieved this through a process he termed "defensive modernization," which involved adopting modern institutions and technologies without fundamentally altering the authoritarian political structure or the dominance of the traditional elite.

  • Unification "from Above": The unification of Germany was achieved "from above," primarily through military means rather than popular revolutionary movements. This involved three wars: the Danish War (1864), the Austro-Prussian War (1866), and crucially, the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871).

  • Prussian King Becomes Emperor: Following the victory in the Franco-Prussian War, the Prussian King was crowned Emperor of the newly formed German Empire.

  • Germany as European Hegemon: The new German Empire quickly emerged as the dominant power on the European continent, excluding Great Britain. This rise generated bitter enmity with France, which viewed the unification and its loss of Alsace-Lorraine as a profound humiliation.

End of the Franco-Prussian War and Empire Proclamation

  • The Prussian king, William I, was crowned by other German rulers at Versailles. This symbolized the creation of the German Empire with a Prussian monarch at its head.

  • Germany officially became an empire under Emperor William I in 1871.

Constitutional Arrangements in German Empire (Unity Without Freedom)

  • Authoritarian Elements: The constitution of the German Empire contained significant authoritarian elements, primarily due to a fundamental lack of accountability of the government to elected representatives.

  • Limited Reichstag: The Reichstag (the imperial parliament) had restricted means to control the government. There was no ministerial responsibility to parliament; ministers were instead responsible directly to the emperor.

  • Imperial Power: There was no "priority of politics" or parliamentary supremacy; the emperor held significant executive power and could dissolve parliament, demonstrating the subordinate role of elected representation.

German Empire: 1871-1890 (Domestic Politics Under Bismarck's Rule)

  • "Internal Unification": Bismarck pursued policies aimed at consolidating the diverse elements of the new empire, a process he called "internal unification."

  • "Iron and Rye" (Protectionism): He established protective tariffs on industrial goods (iron) and agricultural products (rye). This policy secured the support of both industrial magnates and conservative landowners/farmers, forming a powerful bloc that bolstered conservative elites.

  • Nation-Building Policies: Bismarck implemented various measures to foster a unified German national identity:

    • General Suffrage: The Empire adopted general suffrage for the Reichstag, a seemingly democratic measure, but the parliament's limited powers mitigated its democratic impact.

    • "Kulturkampf" (1871-1878): A direct conflict with the Catholic Church and its political party (Zentrum). Bismarck viewed the Catholic Church's allegiance to the Pope as a threat to state authority and national loyalty, leading to laws against Catholic organizations and clergy.

    • Anti-Socialist Laws (1878-1890) and Welfare Laws: Fearing the growing influence of the Social Democratic Party (SPD), Bismarck enacted laws that suppressed socialist organizations, meetings, and publications. Simultaneously, he introduced pioneering social welfare legislation (health insurance, accident insurance, old-age pensions) to alleviate social grievances and undermine socialist appeal, showcasing a blend of repression and reform.

    • Germanification Politics: Policies were pursued to promote German language and culture, particularly targeting ethnic minorities like Poles and, to a lesser extent, the French in Alsace-Lorraine, aiming for cultural homogeneity.

  • Political Implications: These policies led to a weakening of the liberal movement, which had once championed unification based on freedom, and a strengthening of the conservative movement, which allied with the state.

German Empire: 1890-1914 (Politics Under Wilhelm II)

  • Social Dynamics:

    • Population Growth: The population of the German Empire significantly increased from 49 million in 1890 to 67 million in 1914, fueling industrial expansion and social change.

    • Industrial Production: Industrial output, particularly in coal and steel, doubled, solidifying Germany's position as a leading industrial power.

    • Rise of Universities: German universities gained international prominence, especially in scientific application and research, contributing to technological advancement.

    • Cultural Trends: This era saw a mix of cultural conservatism and dynamic innovation, exemplified by the Jugendstil (Art Nouveau) movement and the philosophical influence of Friedrich Nietzsche's concept of the "will to power."

  • Wilhelm II's Policies (1888):

    • Continuation of "Iron and Rye": Wilhelm II largely continued Bismarck's protectionist policies, maintaining the alliance between agrarian and industrial elites.

    • No Democratization: Despite social and economic changes, there was no move towards significant democratization of the political system.

    • "Platz an der Sonne": Wilhelm II pursued an ambitious foreign policy, seeking Germany's "place in the sun," which translated into colonial expansion and a naval build-up, shifting Germany's focus towards global power projection.

  • Opposition: The Social Democratic Party (SPD) continued to grow in popular support, becoming the largest party in the Reichstag, but it remained largely isolated from government power due to the authoritarian structure.

  • "Defensive Modernization" Continued: This period is often characterized as a continuation of "defensive modernization" – Germany achieved significant economic and technological modernization without undergoing a corresponding political liberalization. Tsarist Russia is cited as another example of this phenomenon, where state-led modernization coexisted with authoritarian rule.

IV. The Changing Face of Nationalism Under the German Empire

  • Mass Movement: Nationalism transformed into a mass movement within the German Empire, engaging broad swathes of the population.

  • Shift: From "Freedom and Unity" to "Unity Without Freedom": The pre- ext{1848} liberal nationalist ideal of achieving both freedom and unity gave way to a state-endorsed nationalism that prioritized unity and national power, often at the expense of liberal freedoms.

    • Pre- ext{1848} Context: Before 1848, nationalism was often an oppositional and "bottom-up" force, challenging conservative, monarchical states in pursuit of liberal reforms and national unification.

    • Post- ext{1871} Context: After 1871, nationalism largely embraced the unified state and the royal family, evolving into "Reichspatriotismus" (imperial patriotism). It became a top-down strategy used by the state to consolidate and strengthen its own power positions.

  • Shift: From "Kulturnation" to "Völkische Staatsnation":

    • Herder's Cosmopolitan Nationalism: Prior to 1848, the German "Kulturnation" concept, influenced by Herder, defined Germanness primarily as a cultural idea based on shared language and literature. This allowed for a relatively open conception of belonging, not strictly tied to political borders or ethnicity.

    • Post- ext{1871} Transformation: After 1871, the understanding of the nation hardened. The idea emerged that nations were engaged in a struggle for survival against each other, leading to a more prominent militaristic dimension, exemplified by organizations like the Flottenverein (Navy League) advocating for a strong navy.

    • Ethnic and Exclusionary Definition: Post- ext{1871} Germanness became increasingly defined ethnically, leading to an exclusionary and often racist understanding of national identity. The ideal envisioned Germany as a homogenous, national, political, and racial unitary people, as promoted by groups like the Altdeutscher Verband (Pan-German League).

V. Nationalism Conclusions

Definitions of Nationalism

  • Ernest Gellner: Defined nationalism as "primarily a political principle which holds that the political and the national unit should be congruent." This emphasizes the demand for a nation-state where political boundaries align with national identity.

  • Oxford English Dictionary: Defines nationalism as "identification with one's own nation and support for its interests, especially to the exclusion or detriment of the interests of other nations." This definition highlights loyalty and potential antagonism towards other nations.

  • Context Matters: Nationalism is not monolithic; it comes in various forms and its manifestations are heavily influenced by specific historical contexts (time and place).

Varieties of Nationalism

  • Unification Nationalism: Aimed at unifying fragmented territories or populations into a single nation-state, as seen in Germany and Italy in the 19th century.

  • Separation Nationalism: Aimed at separating certain national groups from larger multi-ethnic empires to form their own independent nation-states, exemplified by movements in the Balkans against the Austro-Hungarian Empire.

  • Nation-Building in Established Liberal States: In already established, more liberal states, nationalism was often not the central, overarching ideology but still played a role in fortifying national identity.

  • 19th Century Nation-Building Policies: States actively used their power to create more homogeneous national populations through various means:

    • Nationalistic Narratives: Inventing and promoting nationalistic narratives to give a sense of deep historical roots and shared destiny (e.g., the Netherlands' narrative of the Batavians as forefathers, or the central position of the royal family in countries like Britain).

    • Language Politics: Implementing official languages, actively eradicating local dialects or minority languages, and researching older linguistic sources to establish a national linguistic heritage.

    • Education and History: Education played a central role in instilling national identity, particularly through the teaching of a national history that emphasized shared heritage and collective achievements.

Nation-State as Basic Framework of Politics

  • The nation-state emerged as the fundamental framework for political organization in the modern era.

Link with Modernization

  • Industrial Revolution: The Industrial Revolution led to the rise of mass society, characterized by new opportunities but also insecurities and feelings of loneliness. This created a need for a "communicative society" that could bridge the local differences prevalent in the Ancien Régime. Nationalism offered the symbols and language to forge bonds between people and foster mutual understanding across diverse regions.

  • Political Revolution: The concept of political freedom, a product of political revolutions, necessitated that citizens identify with the state. This created a need to cement ties between the state and society. A common national culture could serve as a basis for both liberal and democratic reforms (as observed in the UK, France, and the Netherlands) but could also be leveraged to prevent political modernization and maintain authoritarian structures (as seen in the German Empire).

Two Types of Nationalism (Political Science Perspective)

Ethnic Nationalism (Völkisch)

  • Nature: Primarily cultural and often apolitical in its origins, focusing on shared heritage.

  • Exclusivity: Tends to be exclusive, defining belonging based on 'objective' characteristics like common ancestry, blood, or shared origins.

  • Continuity: Emphasizes a sense of deep historical continuity and an unchanging national essence.

Civic Nationalism (Ernest Renan's Perspective)

  • Ernest Renan (1823-1892): His famous lecture "Qu'est-ce qu'une nation?" (What is a Nation?) is central to this concept.

  • Nature: Primarily civic and political.

  • Cultural Basis: Argues that national culture is based on shared history writing, which crucially involves an element of "forgetting" certain past divisions or inconvenient truths. It asserts that there is no purely objective determination of national identity.

  • Inclusivity and Subjectivity: Civic nationalism is inclusive and subjective (voluntaristic). It posits that a nation is a "daily plebiscite," meaning citizens must actively and willingly consent to continue being part of the nation, regardless of their ethnic background.