Comprehensive Study Guide: Washington, Adams, and the Birth of American Government
George Washington’s Leadership and the Newburgh Crisis
George Washington's status as a leader is exemplified by the historical anecdote in which he addresses his officers by reaching into his pocket, pulling out his glasses, and stating: "I'm sorry. My eyes have just grown so weak in the service of my head."
This moment is credited with suppressing a potential military counterrevolution. Washington's "secret sauce" was his leadership style, specifically his willingness to stay with his men in winter quarters and endure bad conditions for the entirety of the war, rather than retiring from the front line like most generals.
By the end of the revolution, Washington was physically changed—his teeth had fallen out, and he was described as old and bent over—yet his refusal to support a counterrevolution forced his generals to abandon the idea and go home.
The threat of government failure in New York and the military unrest prompted Washington to return to Philadelphia to address the national government. He realized that the government needed immediate fixing, which led to the Annapolis Convention.
At the Annapolis Convention, Washington gathered delegates, including Hamilton and Madison, to call for a revision of the Articles of Confederation.
The Constitutional Convention: The Great Compromise
The Articles of Confederation government was considered "stupid" and weak because every state had the same number of votes, and the vote thresholds were too high, ensuring nothing ever got done.
The United States consisted of different colonies with varying sizes, economies, and populations, making balance difficult.
New Jersey Plan: Proposed that every state should be equal in voting power so that small states like New Jersey would not be overpowered by larger ones.
Virginia Plan: Proposed by Virginia (the largest state at the time). It argued that because the Articles were failing due to equality, the new representative branch should base representation on state population. Virginia stood to benefit the most from this arrangement.
The Great Compromise: A combination of both plans resulting in a bicameral legislature: - House of Representatives: The lower house based on the Virginia Plan where population determines representation and all spending legislation must originate. - U.S. Senate: The upper house based on the New Jersey Plan where all states have equal power. - For any bill to become a law, it must successfully pass both the House and the Senate to ensure both the population and the individual states have a say.
Slavery, Representation, and the Three-Fifths Compromise
Once it was decided that the legislature would be based partly on population, a debate arose over who counted toward that population.
South Carolina Case Study: South Carolina was the biggest state by total count, but approximately of its population were enslaved people. South Carolina viewed slaves as property and did not intend to grant them rights, yet wanted them counted for representation.
Northern Objection: Northern delegates, such as Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts (known for the gerrymander), argued it was unfair to count slaves for population if they were considered property. Gerry famously remarked: "If we're going to let property vote, I have a vote. Can I vote a vote?"
Three-Fifths Compromise: To prevent the convention from failing, it was decided that slaves would count as of a person and property for representation purposes.
Historical Connection: This compromise effectively established that slaves were not full people under the Constitution, a concept later upheld in the Dred Scott decision.
Slavery Themes: Evidence of slavery’s influence can be traced through the Mason-Dixon Line, the Three-Fifths Compromise, and the Northwest Ordinance, forming a "thread" that often appears in DBQs about Period .
Major Battles and Turning Points of the American Revolution
Lexington and Concord: The first engagement, though described as a "weird little skirmish." It left the world unsure if the colonists would actually commit to a real war.
Bunker Hill: This battle proved the colonists could fight. Though they technically lost, the transcript notes they only lost because they ran out of "slots." Had they not, they likely would have won and prevented the capture of Boston. This battle convinced Washington to fully commit to the lead.
Saratoga: The turning point () of the war. Although Horatio Gates was the commander on the field rather than Washington, it was the first signature win against the British. Gates took a risk where Washington had been cautious. This victory was the catalyst for the French to officially enter the war.
Yorktown: The final major battle of the revolution, characterized as a siege. Cornwallis was trapped on land and backed against the ocean. The French Navy provided the necessary maritime blockade to keep Cornwallis in the "pocket," forcing his surrender.
Valley Forge and Military Professionalization
Valley Forge: Not a battle, but a winter encampment following Saratoga. It is considered a turning point because Washington stayed with his undersupplied men during a brutally cold winter.
Training and von Steuben: Washington utilized this time for a "Mulan training montage"-style professionalization of the army. He worked with von Steuben to transform "drunk farmers" into a disciplined force.
Strategic Shift: While the war in the North was less formal, the fighting in the South required traditional European-style warfare involving lining up in fields. At Valley Forge, the troops learned these essential tactics.
Prevention of Defection: Washington managed to maintain the loyalty of his men and convinced them to believe in the cause at a time when many terms of service were expiring and morale was low.
Contrast with Horatio Gates: After the winter, Gates took his untrained men to fight Cornwallis and was "ragdolled," his army being decimated. In contrast, Washington’s trained men were able to hold their own.
Alexander Hamilton’s Economic Plan and the Whiskey Rebellion
Hamilton aimed to solve the massive debts incurred during the war.
National Debt: Hamilton established a national debt by having the federal government buy up all individual state debts. This provided two benefits: it freed states to invest in infrastructure and established a line of credit for the U.S. by proving it would pay back its debts.
Tariffs: Hamilton, as the "father of," used tariffs to protect American industry. Tariffs were intended to force the development of domestic industry by making British goods more expensive, encouraging citizens to "buy American."
National Bank: A key component of the plan that deeply angered Thomas Jefferson.
Whiskey Rebellion: Caused by an excise tax on whiskey. Farmers in Western Pennsylvania protested, but George Washington personally led an army to put it down. Washington invoked the "supremacy clause," signaling that the government would not "hit the reset button" on the law.
Washington placed the leaders of the rebellion on the gallows with ropes on their necks but ultimately let them go due to the negative optics of the first president executing citizens.
Washington’s Foreign Policy and Neutrality
Washington understood the military's limitations better than anyone and issued the Neutrality Proclamation to stay out of European conflicts.
Citizen today (Genêt): The first French ambassador who arrived at the invitation of Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson. He gave speeches in Philadelphia (the capital at the time) about liberty and brotherhood, trying to recruit Americans to fight the French Revolution. Washington eventually had him forcefully thrown out of the country after he continued his activities despite a presidential warning.
Jay’s Treaty: Sent John Jay to negotiate with Britain to have them leave their forts in the Northwest Territory and to secure more time to pay war debts.
Pinckney’s Treaty: A maneuver where the Spanish, sensing American tension with France and Britain, proactively offered a treaty regarding Florida, which Washington accepted despite not seeking it.
These diplomatic battles and the bank wars eventually cost Washington his popularity and led to the rise of political parties.
The Adams Administration: The Quasi-War and Alien & Sedition Acts
John Adams: A Federalist and the only president from that party. He inherited an unstable situation after Washington, who was not a member of any political party.
The x y z Here (Affair): Adams sent three diplomats to France to smooth relations. French ambassadors demanded a bribe of just to speak with the Americans. This sparked national outrage and calls for war.
Quasi-War: An undeclared naval war between the U.S. and France. This included "impressment," where sailors were kidnapped and forced into naval service because serving on a sailboat in the was considered "awful."
Alien and Sedition Acts: The Federalists sought to destroy the Democratic-Republicans, who supported France. - The Alien Act: Changed immigration laws and allowed for massive deportations to limit French influence on voting. - The Sedition Act: Outlawed speaking against the president, a violation of the First Amendment ().
Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions: Written by Jefferson and Madison. These introduced the concept of "nullification," arguing that the U.S. was a confederation and that states had the right to ignore federal laws they disliked. This ideology eventually led to the Civil War.
Presidential Precedents and the Election of 1800
The Revolution of 1800: The election of Thomas Jefferson. It was the "proof of concept" that American democracy could work because it featured a "peaceful transfer of power."
This was unique in a world of kings and emperors where changes in government direction usually ended with "heads on spikes."
Washington’s Precedents: Much of a president’s behavior is based on Washington’s choices, not the Constitution: - Created the Cabinet (names like Secretary of State, War, and Treasury originated with him). - Established the Two-Term Limit: He served only terms, a tradition followed until FDR ran times, leading to a constitutional amendment. - Visuals of the Presidency: Washington refused a crown and a cape, opting for a suit to distinguish the office from a monarchy.
Questions & Discussion
Q: What was the Albany Plan? - A: It was Benjamin Franklin's plan to unite the colonies during the French and Indian War. It failed, but it was the first time the colonies were thought of as "us" instead of separate entities.
Q: What is the n w 4? - A: The Northwest Ordnance (Northwest Ordinance) was the only successful achievement of the Articles of Confederation. It provided a structured path for acquiring new territory (Ohio, Illinois, Wisconsin, Michigan) and governed how a territory could apply for statehood. Notably, it banned slavery in those new territories, which many historians believe shows that slavery was initially expected to die out before the invention of the cotton gin made it profitable again.
Q: What is the difference between the First and Second Continental Congress? - A: The First Continental Congress is where they authorized the "mma" (Minutemen) or militia. The Second Continental Congress is where the significant events happened: the Olive Branch Declaration, the formation of the army, and appointing Washington as the head.
Q: What were the Midnight Justices? - A: This refers to the Judiciary Act signed by John Adams as he was leaving office, which led to the Marbury versus Madison lawsuit.