Memory #2

I. Memorable Memory Metaphors

Throughout history, memory has been compared to various objects and systems to explain its function.

1. Classical & Early Metaphors

• Wax tablet – Impressions are left on memory like writing on wax (Plato, Aristotle).

• Cage full of birds – Retrieving memories is like catching birds in a cage (Plato).

• House with rooms – Memories are stored in different “rooms” of the mind (James, 1890; Freud, 1924).

2. 20th-Century Metaphors

• Library full of books – Memories are stored and categorized like books (Broadbent, 1971).

• Phonograph record / Tape recorder – Memory preserves experiences like a recording device (Pear, 1922; Posner & Warren, 1972).

• Coin purse – Memory has a limited capacity, like a purse for holding coins (Miller, 1956).

• Luggage conveyor belt – Memories move through the system but can be lost if not retrieved in time (Murdock, 1974).

• Leaky bucket – Memory retention is imperfect, and some memories fade (Miller, 1956).

• Garbage can – Memory stores vast amounts of information, including irrelevant or unnecessary details (Landauer, 1975).

• Cow’s stomach – Memory processes and retrieves information in stages, like digestion (Hintzman, 1974).

3. Modern Cognitive Metaphors

• Computer – Memory functions like computer storage and processing (Simon & Feigenbaum, 1964).

• CPU and storage system – Short-term memory (RAM) processes information, while long-term memory stores it (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1972).

II. The Three-Stage Model of Memory

Also known as the “Modal Model of the Mind,” this framework describes how information is processed and stored in memory.

1. Stage 1: Sensory Store/Memory

• Function: Holds sensory information briefly for initial identification.

• Capacity: Very large (detailed but fleeting).

• Duration: Extremely short (0.5–3 seconds).

• Types of Sensory Memory:

• Iconic (visual memory) – Holds images for a fraction of a second.

• Echoic (auditory memory) – Retains sounds for up to 3–4 seconds.

• Haptic (touch memory) – Briefly retains tactile sensations.

• Gustic (taste memory) – Short-term storage for taste experiences.

• Olfactic (smell memory) – Stores scent-based memories briefly.

2. Stage 2: Short-Term Memory (STM)

• Function: Active processing and temporary storage of information.

• Capacity: 7 ± 2 items (chunks) (Miller, 1956).

• Duration: 10–15 seconds, unless rehearsed.

• Processes in STM:

• Attention – Focuses on relevant sensory information.

• Rehearsal – Repeating information to maintain it in STM.

• Encoding – Sending information to long-term memory.

• Retrieval – Bringing information back from long-term memory.

3. Stage 3: Long-Term Memory (LTM)

• Function: Stores information permanently for future retrieval.

• Capacity: Essentially unlimited.

• Duration: Can last a lifetime with proper encoding and retrieval.

III. Control Processes in Memory

Memory functions through a set of control processes that regulate how information is processed and stored.

1. Attention – Selects sensory information to process further.

2. Encoding – Converts STM into LTM through meaningful associations.

3. Retrieval – Brings stored memories from LTM back into STM for use.

4. Rehearsal – Repetition helps maintain information in STM and transfer it to LTM.