AP US Gov Test 2/20

📜 Foundational Docs and Cases

• Baker v. Carr (1962): Established the principle of "one person, one vote," allowing federal courts to hear cases about legislative redistricting under the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment.

• Shaw v. Reno (1993): Ruled that racial gerrymandering violates the Equal Protection Clause, even if done with good intentions like increasing minority representation.

• Marbury v. Madison (1803): Established judicial review, allowing the Supreme Court to declare laws and executive actions unconstitutional.

• U.S. Constitution Articles I, II, III:

  • Article I: Establishes the legislative branch (Congress) and its powers.

  • Article II: Establishes the executive branch and presidential powers.

  • Article III: Establishes the judicial branch and the Supreme Court's jurisdiction.

• Federalist 70: Alexander Hamilton argues for a strong, single executive to ensure accountability, energy, and decisive leadership.

• Federalist 78: Hamilton defends the judiciary's independence and promotes judicial review, stating courts should protect constitutional rights from legislative overreach.

🏛 Congressional Concepts

• Pork Barrel Spending: Government spending directed toward specific projects in a legislator's district, often to gain political support.

• Logrolling: A practice where legislators trade votes to secure the passage of their favored bills.

• Oversight: Congress's ability to monitor and review the executive branch's implementation of laws through hearings and investigations.

• Constituency: The residents of a district or state represented by an elected official.

• Apportionment: The process of distributing congressional seats among states based on census population data.

• Redistricting: The redrawing of congressional district boundaries after each census.

• Gerrymandering: Manipulating district boundaries to favor a political party.

• Partisan Gerrymandering: Drawing district lines to give one political party an electoral advantage.

• Majority-Minority Districts: Electoral districts where a racial or ethnic minority makes up the majority.

• Malapportionment: Unequal distribution of voters among districts, violating the "one person, one vote" principle.

• Incumbency: The status of already holding an elected office.

• Incumbency Advantage: The electoral edge enjoyed by current officeholders, often due to name recognition, fundraising, and constituent services.

• Speaker of the House: The presiding officer of the House of Representatives, second in line for presidential succession.

• Political Action Committee (PAC): Organizations that raise and spend money to influence elections or legislation.

• House Majority Leader: The second-ranking member of the House majority party, assisting the Speaker in legislative planning.

• Whip: Party leaders who ensure members vote according to the party line and count votes before key decisions.

• Minority Leader: The leader of the minority party in either the House or Senate, acting as the chief spokesperson and strategist.

• Senate Majority Leader: The chief spokesperson and legislative strategist for the majority party in the Senate.

• Committee Chair: The head of a congressional committee, overseeing hearings and managing legislation.

• Discharge Petition: A procedure in the House to force a bill out of committee for a floor vote if signed by a majority of members.

• House Rules Committee: Sets the terms for debate, including time limits and amendment procedures for bills.

• Committee of the Whole: A House procedure allowing faster consideration of legislation with a reduced quorum.

• Hold: A Senate procedure where a senator temporarily blocks the consideration of a bill or nomination.

• Unanimous Consent Agreement: An agreement in the Senate to set terms for considering a bill, requiring all senators' consent.

• Filibuster: A Senate tactic where a senator speaks indefinitely to block or delay a vote on a bill.

• Cloture: A Senate vote requiring 60 votes to end a filibuster and proceed to a vote on legislation.

• Veto: The president's constitutional power to reject a bill passed by Congress.

• Office of Management and Budget (OMB): Assists the president in preparing the federal budget and overseeing executive agencies' performance.

• Entitlement Program: Government programs, like Social Security and Medicare, that provide benefits to eligible individuals regardless of income.

• Mandatory Spending: Spending required by law for entitlement programs and interest on the national debt.

• Discretionary Spending: Government spending that Congress must approve annually, including defense and education.

• Budget Surplus: When government revenues exceed expenditures in a fiscal year.

• Budget Deficit: When government expenditures exceed revenues in a fiscal year.

• National Debt: The total amount of money the government owes from borrowing.

• Delegate Role: A model of representation where legislators vote based on their constituents' preferences.

• Trustee Role: A model where legislators vote based on their judgment, even if it contradicts constituents' views.

• Politico Role: A hybrid model where legislators act as delegates or trustees depending on the issue.

• Bipartisanship: Cooperation between political parties to achieve common goals.

• Gridlock: A political stalemate where government action is stalled due to divided control or partisan conflict.

• Divided Government: When one party controls the presidency and the other controls one or both houses of Congress.

• Lame Duck Period: The period between an election and when new officials take office, often reducing the outgoing official's influence.

🇺🇸 Executive Concepts

• Executive Branch: The branch of government responsible for enforcing laws, headed by the president.

• Formal (Enumerated) Powers: Constitutionally granted powers of the president, such as vetoing bills and making treaties.

• Informal Powers: Powers not explicitly listed in the Constitution, like executive orders and bargaining with Congress.

• Treaty: A formal agreement between countries, requiring Senate approval.

• State of the Union Address: The president's annual speech to Congress outlining their legislative agenda.

• Veto: The president's power to reject a bill passed by Congress.

• Pocket Veto: When the president ignores a bill and Congress adjourns within 10 days, effectively killing the bill.

• Presidential Pardon: The president's power to forgive a person for a federal crime.

• Executive Privilege: The president's right to withhold information from Congress or the courts for national security reasons.

• Executive Agreement: An international agreement made by the president without Senate approval.

• Signing Statement: A statement issued by the president when signing a bill, often explaining their interpretation of the law.

• Executive Order: A directive issued by the president to executive agencies, carrying the force of law without congressional approval.

• War Powers Resolution (1973): Limits the president's ability to commit troops without congressional approval, requiring notification within 48 hours and withdrawal after 60 days unless Congress authorizes further action.

• Impeachment: The process by which Congress can remove the president, vice president, or other federal officials for "high crimes and misdemeanors."

• Executive Office of the President (EOP): The group of presidential advisers and agencies that assist the president in governing.

• Bargaining and Persuasion: The president's informal power to influence Congress and other political actors.

• Bully Pulpit: The president's use of their platform to promote their agenda and sway public opinion.

• Going Public: When the president appeals directly to the public to pressure Congress to support their policies.

⚖ Judicial Concepts

• Federal Judiciary: The branch of government responsible for interpreting laws and ensuring justice under the Constitution.

• Supreme Court: The highest court in the U.S., with both original and appellate jurisdiction.

• Original Jurisdiction: The authority of a court to hear a case first, before any other court.

• Appellate Jurisdiction: The authority of a court to review decisions made by lower courts.

• Judicial Review: The Supreme Court's power to declare laws and executive actions unconstitutional.

• Criminal Law: Laws dealing with actions considered harmful to society, prosecuted by the government.

• Civil Law: Laws dealing with disputes between individuals or organizations.

• Federal District Courts: The lowest level of the federal court system, where trials are held.

• Federal Courts of Appeals: Intermediate federal courts that review cases from district courts.

• Precedent: A judicial decision that serves as a rule for future cases.

• Stare Decisis: The principle of following established precedents in court rulings.

• Majority Opinion: The official opinion of the Supreme Court, reflecting the view of the majority of justices.

• Concurring Opinion: A separate opinion written by a justice who agrees with the majority but for different reasons.

• Dissenting Opinion: An opinion written by a justice who disagrees with the majority ruling.

• Judicial Restraint: The belief that courts should defer to the elected branches and avoid overturning laws unless clearly unconstitutional.

• Judicial Activism: The belief that courts should actively interpret the Constitution to address societal issues.

🏢 Federal Bureaucracy Concepts

• Federal Bureaucracy: The large system of government agencies and departments that implement and enforce federal laws.

• Bureaucrat: A government official who works in the federal bureaucracy.

• Political Patronage: The practice of giving government jobs to political supporters.

• Pendleton Act (1883): Established the merit system for federal hiring, ending the spoils system.

• Federal Civil Service: The system of hiring and promoting government employees based on merit rather than political connections.

• Merit System: A hiring system based on qualifications and performance rather than political favoritism.

• Iron Triangle: A mutually beneficial relationship between congressional committees, bureaucratic agencies, and interest groups.

• Issue Network: A broader, more fluid coalition of interest groups, experts, and government officials that influence policy.

• Implementation: The process by which bureaucratic agencies carry out laws passed by Congress.

• Bureaucratic Discretion: The authority of bureaucrats to interpret and implement laws as they see fit.

• Regulation: The process of creating and enforcing rules and standards within the bureaucracy.

• Bureaucratic Adjudication: The process by which bureaucratic agencies settle disputes and enforce regulations.