Chapter 5 Key Issue 4

Why do people preserve local languages?

  • English has diffused and changed rapidly
  • Icelandic hasn’t diffused as much and stays relatively the same
  • with global dominance of English, local languages are endangered

Language Diversity

Multilingual States

  • difficulties can arise at the boundary between two languages
Belgium
  • southern Belgians (Walloons) speak French
  • northern Belgians (Flemings) speak Flemish
    • dialect of Dutch
  • historically, Walloons dominated Belgium’s economy and politics, and French was the official language
  • Belgium is divided into two autonomous regions
    • Flanders
    • Wallonia
  • still, people in Flanders want to become an independent country
    • however, if this would be, Flanders would be one of Europe’s richest countries and Wallonia one of the poorest
Switzerland
  • peacefully exists with multiple languages → decentralized government → local authorities hold most power + decisions made by voter referenda
  • four official languages
    • German (65%)
    • French (18%)
    • Italian (10%)
    • Romansh (1%)
  • relatively tolerant of citizens who speak other languages
    • people living in individual communities may use a language other than the prevailing local one
  • institutionalized cultural diversity by creating a form of government that places considerable power in small communities
Nigeria
  • Africa’s most populous country
  • 527 languages
    • only 3 are widespread
    • Hausa
    • Yoruba
    • Igbo
    • each spoken by 1/8 of population
  • southern Igbos tried to secede, and northerners repeatedly claimed that the Yorubas discriminate against them
  • government moved the capital from Lagos in the Yoruba-dominated southwest to Abuja in the center of Nigeria
  • reflects problems that arise when great cultural diversity is packed into a small region

Isolated Languages

isolated language: a language that is unrelated to any other languages and therefore not attached to any language family

  • similarities and differences between languages show the degree of interaction among groups of people
  • isolated languages arise through lack of interaction with speakers of other languages
A Pre-Indo-European Survivor: Basque
  • only language spoken in Europe that survives from the period before the arrival of Indo-European speakers
  • first language of people in the Pyrenees Mountains
  • lack of connection to other languages reflect isolation of Basque people in their mountainous homeland
An Unchanging Language: Icelandic
  • related to other languages in the North Germanic group
  • it has changed less than any other language in the Germanic branch
  • Icelandic people speak a Germanic language because ancestors came to the island from the east, from Norway
  • as groups migrate, they take their language, which can change with interaction with speakers of other languages
  • Norwegian immigrants had little contact with speakers of other languages
  • Iceland has less opportunity to learn new words and no reason to change their language
A “Discovered” Language: Koro Aka
  • a research team in India found a language not listed in authoritative sources
  • concluded that the language is a distinct language that belongs to the Tibeto-Burman branch of Sino-Tibetan
  • has around 1000 speakers

Extinct and Revived Languages

extinct language: a language that was once used by people in daily activities but is no longer used

Many Extinct Languages: Native Americans
  • more than 500 languages in the eastern Amazon region of Peru
    • only 92 survive
    • 14 face immediate extinction
    • fewer than 100 speakers remain
    • only one language is used by more than 1 million people
    • Cusco
  • 74 extinct languages in the US were once spoken by Native Americans
An Extinct Language: Gothic
  • was widely spoken by people in Eastern and Northern Europe
  • Gothic and its entire language group are extinct
    • East Germanic group
  • last speakers lived in the Crimea in Russia
  • died because descendants of speakers were converted to other languages through processes of integration
Reviving an Extinct Language: Hebrew
  • most of the Jewish Bible was written in it
  • when Israel became an independent country, Hebrew became one of the two official languages
  • words had to be created for thousands of objects and inventions unknown in biblical times
  • Eliezar Ben-Yehuda initiated the revival effort

Preserving Endangered Languages: Celtic

  • expected of hundreds of languages to become extinct
  • only 300 languages are clearly safe from extinction
  • Celtic branch of Indo-European was the major language in the British Isles before the invasions
    • was spoken in Germany, France, northern Italy, and in the British Isles
    • now surviving in remote parts of Scotland, Wales, Ireland, and on the Brittany peninsula of France
  • Celtic branch is divided into Goidelic (Gaelic) and Brythonic groups
    • two Goidelic languages survive
    • Irish Gaelic
    • Scottish Gaelic
    • speakers of Brythonic/Cymric/Britannic fled westward during Germanic invasions to Wales, Cornwall, or to the Brittany peninsula of France
  • efforts have been put in to try to save Celtic languages
Welsh (Brythonic)
  • Wales
    • conquered by English
    • Welsh was dominant until English speakers migrated there to work in coal mines and factories
    • 22% of population speak Wales
    • isolated communities in the northwest
      • 2/3 of the county of Gwynedd
  • Welsh Language Society has been important in preserving the language
  • Britain’s Education Act
    • made Welsh a subject taught in all schools,
    • Welsh history and music have been added to the curriculum
    • local governments and utility companies are obliged to provide services in Welsh
    • Welsh-language road signs + television + radio programs
Irish
  • Ireland’s official languages are Irish Gaelic and English
  • revival of Irish is led by young Irish living in other countries, wishing to distinguish themselves from the English
  • English road signs were banned in portions of the country
  • Irish was forbidden in the 1300s by English masters
    • Irish children were punished for speaking Irish in the 1800s
Breton
  • in Brittany
  • has more French words
Scottish
  • 1% of people speak Scottish Gaelic in Scotland
  • extensive body of literature exists in Gaelic languages
  • Gaelic was carried from Ireland to Scotland 1500 years ago
Cornish
  • became extinct in 1777, when its last native speaker, Dolly Pentreath, living in Mousehole, died
  • English historian wrote down as much of her speech as possible before she died
    • one of her final words were “I will not speak English…you ugly, black toad!”
  • Cornish is taught in grade schools, adult evening courses, and sometimes used in church services
  • a standard written version of the language was made
    • impossible to know how to precisely pronounce the words

Preserving Aboriginal and Maori in Australia and New Zealand

  • English is widely used due to British colonization
  • languages predating English survive
  • Australia regards English as a tool for promoting cultural diversity
  • New Zealand regards linguistic diversity as an important element of cultural diversity
Australia
  • 1% of population is Aboriginal
  • English is the language of instruction
  • restriction of immigration from non-English-speaking places in the 1800s and 1900s
  • immigrants had to write 50 words of a European language
  • now, immigrants merely need to learn English
New Zealand
  • 10% is Maori
    • descendants of Polynesian people
  • adopted policies to preserve Maori language
    • became one of its official languages
  • immigrants must already be fluent in English

Preserving Occitan in France

  • northerners mainly speak French
  • standard form of French derives from Francien, which was once a dialect of the Ile-de-France region
  • Francien became the standard form because its region included Paris, the capital and largest city
  • local dialects disappeared due to dominance of Francien
  • Occitan is spoken in southern France
    • name derives from the region of Aquitaine
  • dialects include
    • Auvergnat
    • Gascon
    • Provencal
  • French’s word for yes derived from the phrase “d’oil” and “d’oc”
  • government established bilingual schools called calandretas in the Occitan region, teaching both French and Occitan

Global Dominance of English

  • a global society needs a common language for communication
    • English
  • dominance of English → diffusion of popular culture + science + growth of international trade
  • people must weigh the benefits of using English against the cost of losing their native language

English: An example of a Lingua Franca

lingua franca: a language mutually understood and commonly used in trade by people who have different native languages

  • to facilitate trade, speakers of two different languages create a lingua franca by mixing elements of the two languages into a simple common language
  • people need to learn English to participate more fully in the global economy and culture
  • many students are learning English as a second language
    • 90% in the European Union
  • Japanese government has determined fluency in English is mandatory in global economy, and has considered adding English as a second official language
  • foreign students seek admission to universities in countries that teach English
    • want to learn English because believe it’s the most effective way to work in the global economy

pidgin language: a form of speech that adopts a simplified grammar and limited vocabulary of a lingua franca; used for communications among speakers of two different languages

  • people learn a few grammar rules and words of a lingua franca, and mix in some elements if their own language
  • no “native” speakers; is an addition to one’s native language
  • other lingua francas include
    • Swahili → East Africa
    • Hindi → South Asia
    • Indonesian → Southeast Asia
    • Russian → former Soviet Union
  • US citizens don’t recognize the importance of learning other languages
    • lack of effort by Americans → resentment among people elsewhere in the world
    • inability to speak other languages → handicap for those who try to conduct international business
    • ex. Japanese businesses can send English-speaking officials to the US, but US businesses are unable to send a Japanese-speaking employee

Expansion Diffusion of English

  • in the past, lingua francas diffused through migration and conquest
  • Latin spread with the Roman Empire
  • English spread through the British Empire
  • recent growth of English, however, shows expansion diffusion
    • is changing through diffusion of new vocab, spelling, and pronunciation
    • words are fusing with other languages
  • recent changes in English came from common usage and ethnic dialects, rather than being directed down by elite people
African American English
  • speak a dialect influenced by distinctive heritage of forced migration
    • slaves had preserved a distinctive dialect to communicate in a code not understood by white masters
    • ex. gumbo, jazz
  • as they migrated north, they had to live in racially segregated areas, which preserved their distinctive dialect

Ebonics: a dialect spoken by some African Americans

  • synonym for AAVE (African American Vernacular English)
    • classified as a distinct dialect
  • use double negatives
  • use of AAVE is controversial
    • some regard it as substandard, a measure of poor education, and an obstacle to success in the US
    • others view it as a means for preserving a distinctive element of African American culture and an effective way to teach African Aericans who otherwise perform poorly in school
Appalachian English
  • has a distintive dialect
  • use double negatives
  • a source of regional identity but has been regarded by others as a sign of poor education and an obstacle to obtaining employment in other regions
  • some residents are “biodialectic”
    • speak “standard” English outside Appalachia
    • speak their regional dialect at home

Diffusion to Other Languages

  • English words have been integrated into other languages
Franglais
  • language has been an important source of national pride and identity in France
  • French are upset with the domination of English, the invason of their language by English words, and substitution of English for French
  • French had been the lingua franca for centuries
  • many are upset for English words diffusing in and destroying its “purity”

Franglais: a term used by the French for English words that have entered the French language; a combination of francais and anglais, the French words for French and English

  • French Academy has promoted the use of French terms instead of English
    • France’s highest court, however, ruled that the country’s laws banning Franglais were illegal
Spanglish

Spanglish: a combination of Spanish and English spoken by Hispanic Americans

  • sometimes called Cubonics
  • converts English words to Spanish forms
  • awkward Spanish words/phrases are dropped in favor of English words
  • can also mix English and Spanish words in the same phrase
    • me voy → I’m leaving
    • voy → I go
  • widespread in pop culture, but also in serious literature
  • critics charge that it’s a substitute for rigorously learning rules of standard English and Spanish
  • has not been promoted for use in school
  • generally regarded as enriching both English and Spanish by adopting the best elements of each
    • English’s ability to invent new words
    • Spanish’s ability to convey nuances of emotion
Denglish

Denglish: a combination of German and English

  • English slogans are used in advertising
  • English has also diffused into languages such as Japanese

Spanish and French in the US and Canada

Spanish-Speaking US
  • linguistic unity is a feature of US; a nation of immigrants who learn English to become Americans
  • however, there is a great diversity of languages
  • Spanish has become important due to large-scale immigration from Latin America
    • some public notices, government documents, and advertisements are printed in Spanish
    • many Spanish-language newspapers, radio, and television stations operate
    • southern Florida
    • the Southwest
  • English is the chief cultural bond in the US in an otherwise heterogeneous society
  • English is important for people around the world, not just inside the US
  • increasing use of other languages in US is a reminder of importance that groups place on preserving cultural identity and the central role that lagnauge plays in maintaining that identity
  • 30 states tried to make English the official language to discourage Spanish
    • some courts have judged these to be unconstitutional
    • US Congress is debating
    • for states with large Hispanic populations, it would affect access to jobs, education, and social services
French-Speaking Canada
  • French is one of Canada’s official languages
  • most French speakers are clustered in Quebec
    • colonized by French in the 1600s
    • captured by British in 1763
    • became a province of the Confederation of Canada in 1867
    • was one of Canada’s poorest and least-developed provinces until recently
    • economic and political activities dominated by an English-speaking minority
    • suffered cultural isolation and lack of French-speaking leaders
    • French President Charles de Gaulle visited Quebec in 1967 and encouraged the development of an independent Quebec
    • voters in Quebec rejected separation from Canada, but barely
    • government made use of French mandatory in many daily activities
    • renamed towns, rivers, and mountains with English-language origins
    • predominant language on all commercial signs
    • English and French speakers have mixed together in neighborhoods
    • challenges with integrating immigrants who don’t speak French
    • prefer to use English but are prohibited by the government
    • immigrants who learn French face discrimination due to accents

English on the Internet

  • Internet has strengthened dominance of English
  • majority of material is in English
  • English may be less dominant in the twenty-first century because of other languages being used
  • US remains the Internet leader
    • “www”
    • “World Wide Web”
    • “.com”
    • “.edu”
    • “.fr”
    • for domain names in France
    • “.jp”
    • for domain names in Japan
  • however, now characters such as Arabic and Chinese can be used in domain names