Chapter 5 Key Issue 4

Why do people preserve local languages?

English has diffused and changed rapidly
Icelandic hasn’t diffused as much and stays relatively the same
with global dominance of English, local languages are endangered

Language Diversity

Multilingual States

difficulties can arise at the boundary between two languages

Belgium

southern Belgians (Walloons) speak French
northern Belgians (Flemings) speak Flemish * dialect of Dutch
historically, Walloons dominated Belgium’s economy and politics, and French was the official language
Belgium is divided into two autonomous regions * Flanders * Wallonia
still, people in Flanders want to become an independent country * however, if this would be, Flanders would be one of Europe’s richest countries and Wallonia one of the poorest

Switzerland

peacefully exists with multiple languages → decentralized government → local authorities hold most power + decisions made by voter referenda
four official languages * German (65%) * French (18%) * Italian (10%) * Romansh (1%)
relatively tolerant of citizens who speak other languages * people living in individual communities may use a language other than the prevailing local one
institutionalized cultural diversity by creating a form of government that places considerable power in small communities

Nigeria

Africa’s most populous country
527 languages * only 3 are widespread * Hausa * Yoruba * Igbo * each spoken by 1/8 of population
southern Igbos tried to secede, and northerners repeatedly claimed that the Yorubas discriminate against them
government moved the capital from Lagos in the Yoruba-dominated southwest to Abuja in the center of Nigeria
reflects problems that arise when great cultural diversity is packed into a small region

Isolated Languages

isolated language: a language that is unrelated to any other languages and therefore not attached to any language family

similarities and differences between languages show the degree of interaction among groups of people
isolated languages arise through lack of interaction with speakers of other languages

A Pre-Indo-European Survivor: Basque

only language spoken in Europe that survives from the period before the arrival of Indo-European speakers
first language of people in the Pyrenees Mountains
lack of connection to other languages reflect isolation of Basque people in their mountainous homeland

An Unchanging Language: Icelandic

related to other languages in the North Germanic group
it has changed less than any other language in the Germanic branch
Icelandic people speak a Germanic language because ancestors came to the island from the east, from Norway
as groups migrate, they take their language, which can change with interaction with speakers of other languages
Norwegian immigrants had little contact with speakers of other languages
Iceland has less opportunity to learn new words and no reason to change their language

A “Discovered” Language: Koro Aka

a research team in India found a language not listed in authoritative sources
concluded that the language is a distinct language that belongs to the Tibeto-Burman branch of Sino-Tibetan
has around 1000 speakers

Extinct and Revived Languages

extinct language: a language that was once used by people in daily activities but is no longer used

Many Extinct Languages: Native Americans

more than 500 languages in the eastern Amazon region of Peru * only 92 survive * 14 face immediate extinction * fewer than 100 speakers remain * only one language is used by more than 1 million people * Cusco
74 extinct languages in the US were once spoken by Native Americans

An Extinct Language: Gothic

was widely spoken by people in Eastern and Northern Europe
Gothic and its entire language group are extinct * East Germanic group
last speakers lived in the Crimea in Russia
died because descendants of speakers were converted to other languages through processes of integration

Reviving an Extinct Language: Hebrew

most of the Jewish Bible was written in it
when Israel became an independent country, Hebrew became one of the two official languages
words had to be created for thousands of objects and inventions unknown in biblical times
Eliezar Ben-Yehuda initiated the revival effort

Preserving Endangered Languages: Celtic

expected of hundreds of languages to become extinct
only 300 languages are clearly safe from extinction
Celtic branch of Indo-European was the major language in the British Isles before the invasions * was spoken in Germany, France, northern Italy, and in the British Isles * now surviving in remote parts of Scotland, Wales, Ireland, and on the Brittany peninsula of France
Celtic branch is divided into Goidelic (Gaelic) and Brythonic groups * two Goidelic languages survive * Irish Gaelic * Scottish Gaelic * speakers of Brythonic/Cymric/Britannic fled westward during Germanic invasions to Wales, Cornwall, or to the Brittany peninsula of France
efforts have been put in to try to save Celtic languages

Welsh (Brythonic)

Wales * conquered by English * Welsh was dominant until English speakers migrated there to work in coal mines and factories * 22% of population speak Wales * isolated communities in the northwest * 2/3 of the county of Gwynedd
Welsh Language Society has been important in preserving the language
Britain’s Education Act * made Welsh a subject taught in all schools, * Welsh history and music have been added to the curriculum * local governments and utility companies are obliged to provide services in Welsh * Welsh-language road signs + television + radio programs

Irish

Ireland’s official languages are Irish Gaelic and English
revival of Irish is led by young Irish living in other countries, wishing to distinguish themselves from the English
English road signs were banned in portions of the country
Irish was forbidden in the 1300s by English masters * Irish children were punished for speaking Irish in the 1800s

Breton

in Brittany
has more French words

Scottish

1% of people speak Scottish Gaelic in Scotland
extensive body of literature exists in Gaelic languages
Gaelic was carried from Ireland to Scotland 1500 years ago

Cornish

became extinct in 1777, when its last native speaker, Dolly Pentreath, living in Mousehole, died
English historian wrote down as much of her speech as possible before she died * one of her final words were “I will not speak English…you ugly, black toad!”
Cornish is taught in grade schools, adult evening courses, and sometimes used in church services
a standard written version of the language was made * impossible to know how to precisely pronounce the words

Preserving Aboriginal and Maori in Australia and New Zealand

English is widely used due to British colonization
languages predating English survive
Australia regards English as a tool for promoting cultural diversity
New Zealand regards linguistic diversity as an important element of cultural diversity

Australia

1% of population is Aboriginal
English is the language of instruction
restriction of immigration from non-English-speaking places in the 1800s and 1900s
immigrants had to write 50 words of a European language
now, immigrants merely need to learn English

New Zealand

10% is Maori * descendants of Polynesian people
adopted policies to preserve Maori language * became one of its official languages
immigrants must already be fluent in English

Preserving Occitan in France

northerners mainly speak French
standard form of French derives from Francien, which was once a dialect of the Ile-de-France region
Francien became the standard form because its region included Paris, the capital and largest city
local dialects disappeared due to dominance of Francien
Occitan is spoken in southern France * name derives from the region of Aquitaine
dialects include * Auvergnat * Gascon * Provencal
French’s word for yes derived from the phrase “d’oil” and “d’oc”
government established bilingual schools called calandretas in the Occitan region, teaching both French and Occitan

Global Dominance of English

a global society needs a common language for communication * English
dominance of English → diffusion of popular culture + science + growth of international trade
people must weigh the benefits of using English against the cost of losing their native language

English: An example of a Lingua Franca

lingua franca: a language mutually understood and commonly used in trade by people who have different native languages

to facilitate trade, speakers of two different languages create a lingua franca by mixing elements of the two languages into a simple common language
people need to learn English to participate more fully in the global economy and culture
many students are learning English as a second language * 90% in the European Union
Japanese government has determined fluency in English is mandatory in global economy, and has considered adding English as a second official language
foreign students seek admission to universities in countries that teach English * want to learn English because believe it’s the most effective way to work in the global economy

pidgin language: a form of speech that adopts a simplified grammar and limited vocabulary of a lingua franca; used for communications among speakers of two different languages

people learn a few grammar rules and words of a lingua franca, and mix in some elements if their own language
no “native” speakers; is an addition to one’s native language
other lingua francas include * Swahili → East Africa * Hindi → South Asia * Indonesian → Southeast Asia * Russian → former Soviet Union
US citizens don’t recognize the importance of learning other languages * lack of effort by Americans → resentment among people elsewhere in the world * inability to speak other languages → handicap for those who try to conduct international business * ex. Japanese businesses can send English-speaking officials to the US, but US businesses are unable to send a Japanese-speaking employee

Expansion Diffusion of English

in the past, lingua francas diffused through migration and conquest
Latin spread with the Roman Empire
English spread through the British Empire
recent growth of English, however, shows expansion diffusion * is changing through diffusion of new vocab, spelling, and pronunciation * words are fusing with other languages
recent changes in English came from common usage and ethnic dialects, rather than being directed down by elite people

African American English

speak a dialect influenced by distinctive heritage of forced migration * slaves had preserved a distinctive dialect to communicate in a code not understood by white masters * ex. gumbo, jazz
as they migrated north, they had to live in racially segregated areas, which preserved their distinctive dialect

Ebonics: a dialect spoken by some African Americans

synonym for AAVE (African American Vernacular English) * classified as a distinct dialect
use double negatives
use of AAVE is controversial * some regard it as substandard, a measure of poor education, and an obstacle to success in the US * others view it as a means for preserving a distinctive element of African American culture and an effective way to teach African Aericans who otherwise perform poorly in school

Appalachian English

has a distintive dialect
use double negatives
a source of regional identity but has been regarded by others as a sign of poor education and an obstacle to obtaining employment in other regions
some residents are “biodialectic” * speak “standard” English outside Appalachia * speak their regional dialect at home

Diffusion to Other Languages

English words have been integrated into other languages

Franglais

language has been an important source of national pride and identity in France
French are upset with the domination of English, the invason of their language by English words, and substitution of English for French
French had been the lingua franca for centuries
many are upset for English words diffusing in and destroying its “purity”

Franglais: a term used by the French for English words that have entered the French language; a combination of francais and anglais, the French words for French and English

French Academy has promoted the use of French terms instead of English * France’s highest court, however, ruled that the country’s laws banning Franglais were illegal

Spanglish

Spanglish: a combination of Spanish and English spoken by Hispanic Americans

sometimes called Cubonics
converts English words to Spanish forms
awkward Spanish words/phrases are dropped in favor of English words
can also mix English and Spanish words in the same phrase * me voy → I’m leaving * voy → I go
widespread in pop culture, but also in serious literature
critics charge that it’s a substitute for rigorously learning rules of standard English and Spanish
has not been promoted for use in school
generally regarded as enriching both English and Spanish by adopting the best elements of each * English’s ability to invent new words * Spanish’s ability to convey nuances of emotion

Denglish

Denglish: a combination of German and English

English slogans are used in advertising
English has also diffused into languages such as Japanese

Spanish and French in the US and Canada

Spanish-Speaking US

linguistic unity is a feature of US; a nation of immigrants who learn English to become Americans
however, there is a great diversity of languages
Spanish has become important due to large-scale immigration from Latin America * some public notices, government documents, and advertisements are printed in Spanish * many Spanish-language newspapers, radio, and television stations operate * southern Florida * the Southwest
English is the chief cultural bond in the US in an otherwise heterogeneous society
English is important for people around the world, not just inside the US
increasing use of other languages in US is a reminder of importance that groups place on preserving cultural identity and the central role that lagnauge plays in maintaining that identity
30 states tried to make English the official language to discourage Spanish * some courts have judged these to be unconstitutional * US Congress is debating * for states with large Hispanic populations, it would affect access to jobs, education, and social services

French-Speaking Canada

French is one of Canada’s official languages
most French speakers are clustered in Quebec * colonized by French in the 1600s * captured by British in 1763 * became a province of the Confederation of Canada in 1867 * was one of Canada’s poorest and least-developed provinces until recently * economic and political activities dominated by an English-speaking minority * suffered cultural isolation and lack of French-speaking leaders * French President Charles de Gaulle visited Quebec in 1967 and encouraged the development of an independent Quebec * voters in Quebec rejected separation from Canada, but barely * government made use of French mandatory in many daily activities * renamed towns, rivers, and mountains with English-language origins * predominant language on all commercial signs * English and French speakers have mixed together in neighborhoods * challenges with integrating immigrants who don’t speak French * prefer to use English but are prohibited by the government * immigrants who learn French face discrimination due to accents

English on the Internet

Internet has strengthened dominance of English
majority of material is in English
English may be less dominant in the twenty-first century because of other languages being used
US remains the Internet leader * “www” * “World Wide Web” * “.com” * “.edu” * “.fr” * for domain names in France * “.jp” * for domain names in Japan
however, now characters such as Arabic and Chinese can be used in domain names