Confederate Monuments
Nixon, Detente, Vietnam, and Watergate
Nixon and Kissinger pursued realism (realpolitik): prioritizing power and international stability over pure anti-communist ideology. They supported pro-American regimes in Iran, the Philippines, and South Africa, and helped destabilize Allende in Chile, leading to Pinochet's dictatorship (1973) with thousands of opponents tortured or killed. Democracy in Chile did not recover until the late 1980s. In major powers, Nixon sought strategic stability rather than a united antiwar bloc, hoping the Soviet Union and China could influence North Vietnam toward terms favorable to the United States.
China and détente transformed the Cold War: secret 1971 Kissinger trip to China opened relations, culminating in Nixon’s 1972 Beijing visit; Beijing gained a seat at the UN in 1971–1972, with full diplomatic relations not until 1979. Sino-American trade surged. Nixon then visited the Soviet Union in 1972, yielding SALT1-type agreements and the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty, promoting peaceful coexistence and limiting nuclear arms.
Vietnam policy and war: Nixon’s Vietnamization aimed to shift fighting to South Vietnamese forces, with continued bombing. The 1970 Cambodian invasion destabilized the region and helped bring the Khmer Rouge to power, ending with a Vietnamese invasion in 1979. By 1975, Vietnam was reunified under communist rule; American costs totaled the lives of Americans and estimates of Vietnamese civilian deaths ranging in the millions, with hundreds of millions of dollars spent.
Watergate and the fall: Nixon created the "plumbers" to guard classified information; the 1972 Watergate break-in and the ensuing investigation revealed White House involvement in cover-ups. The obstruction, the firing of Special Prosecutor Archibald Cox (the Saturday Night Massacre), and Court orders to release tapes culminated in Nixon’s resignation in 1974. The scandal, along with the Pentagon Papers and Vietnam, eroded trust in government and reshaped liberalism’s foundations.
The End of the Golden Age
Economic trouble after postwar prosperity: the era of high growth and rising living standards ended in the 1970s. In 1971, the United States abandoned the Bretton Woods gold standard, letting currencies float and introducing greater financial volatility. Wages and prices were briefly frozen, but oil shocks followed: 1973 oil embargo and 1979 energy shock reduced growth and triggered stagflation (stagnation plus inflation).
Energy and inflation: oil imports rose; public opinion and policy responded with conservation (speed limits, energy efficiency). The era saw a massive rise in oil prices driven by OPEC; the economy experienced high inflation and rising unemployment, with the Misery Index peaking around in 1980.
Deindustrialization and regional shifts: manufacturing declined; real wages fell after peaking in the early 1970s; Sunbelt cities grew while traditional industrial centers contracted. The World Trade Center’s construction symbolized a move toward service and information industries in places like New York.
Global and domestic adjustments: the dollar’s depreciation and wage-price controls altered economic policy; large-scale shifts toward imports and foreign competition reshaped the American economy.
The Rising Tide of Conservatism
Economic and political discontent: instability and decline of manufacturing spurred demands for lower taxes, deregulation, and reduced social spending, leading to a broader conservative realignment.
The Tax Revolt and the West: Proposition 13 (1978) in California constrained property taxes, boosting conservative coalitions and signaling a broader anti-tax movement nationwide. The Sagebrush Rebellion reflected Western suspicion of federal land controls and environmental regulation.
The Religious Right and social values: evangelical Christians mobilized politically, forming a powerful base for conservative candidates. The Moral Majority (1979) under Jerry Falwell popularized the idea of waging a moral and political culture war.
ERA debate and social polarization: the Equal Rights Amendment sparked fierce controversy, mobilizing conservative women like Phyllis Schlafly to block ratification, illustrating the era’s gender politics tensions.
The Presidency of Carter and Human Rights Politics
Carter’s human rights emphasis: influenced by Amnesty International and NGO reporting, Carter linked U.S. foreign policy to human rights, challenging some long-standing Cold War alliances. He brokered Camp David (1978) between Egypt and Israel and moved toward transferring the Panama Canal to local control by 2000.
Nuclear energy and the economy: Carter promoted nuclear energy but faced the Three Mile Island accident (1979), dampening the nuclear expansion. He pursued deregulation and attempted to curb arms sales, yet faced a domestic economy shaken by inflation and high interest rates.
SALT II and the Middle East: Carter signed SALT II (1979) with the Soviet Union but faced domestic opposition; the Iran Revolution (1979) and the hostage crisis damaged perceived American leverage abroad. In Afghanistan (1979), the U.S. supported anti-Soviet fighters, a policy with long-term unintended consequences.
The Iran crisis and the hostage situation: the 1979–1981 hostage crisis damaged Carter’s credibility and highlighted limits of American influence, contributing to his unpopularity and setting the stage for Reagan’s election.
The 1980 Election and the Reagan Revolution
Carter’s decline: with approval around 21 ext{%}, Carter faced a rising conservative movement that promised to restore American confidence and strength.
Reagan’s ascent: Ronald Reagan built a coalition around tax cuts, deregulation, strong defense, and traditional values. He appealed to white southerners and the growing conservative suburbs, framing a national shift toward smaller government and a robust anti-communist foreign policy.
Aftermath and symbolism: Reagan’s victory marked the consolidation of the conservative shift, transforming the political landscape and the application of conservative principles across economic and social policy.
Native American Rights and Other Contemporary Debates
Native rights movement: The International Indian Treaty Council (established 1974) pressed for Indigenous treaty rights and sovereignty, gaining consultative status with the United Nations in 1977 and pushing for UN recognition of Indigenous rights.
Abortion controversy: The 1970s saw a bitter battle over abortion following Roe v. Wade (1973). The pro-choice and pro-life movements framed the issue in terms of rights and morality, influencing judicial and legislative battles and public demonstrations.
Key Concepts and Terms
SALT and détente: Strategic Arms Limitation Talks; a framework to limit nuclear weapons and reduce the risk of direct conflict with the Soviet Union.
Détente: A policy of easing tensions and improving relations with communist nations, particularly China and the USSR.
My Lai massacre: 1968 atrocity in Vietnam, later exposed and contributing to domestic opposition to the war.
Pentagon Papers: Secret Defense Department history of the Vietnam War, leaked in 1971 and pivotal in shifting public opinion.
War Powers Act (1973): Legislation asserting congressional authority over the deployment of troops overseas.
Watergate: 1972 break-in and cover-up scandal leading to Nixon’s resignation; highlighted limits on presidential power.
Vietnam Syndrome: The belief that the United States should be cautious in military commitments after Vietnam.
Camp David Accords (1978): Historic peace agreement between Egypt and Israel brokered by Carter.
Tehran Hostage Crisis (1979–1981): Iranian revolutionaries seized U.S. diplomats, severely impacting U.S. foreign policy.
Reagan Revolution: The ideological and policy shift toward conservative governance beginning with Reagan’s presidency.
Moral Majority: A political organization that mobilized evangelical Christians in support of conservative policies.
Sagebrush Rebellion: Western anti-government, pro-state control movement related to land and regulatory issues.
ERA (Equal Rights Amendment) controversy: Failed attempt to guarantee gender equality in the Constitution, spurring significant conservative opposition.
Three Mile Island: Nuclear accident (1979) that slowed the expansion of nuclear power.
The Misery Index: A combined measure of inflation and unemployment used to describe economic hardship in the 1970s.
Glossary
oil embargo: Prohibition on oil trade by OPEC members during the 1973 oil crisis.
stagflation: A period of high inflation and high unemployment.
deindustrialization: Decline of manufacturing in old industrial cities as production moved elsewhere.
Sunbelt: The southern and western United States region that experienced rapid population and economic growth.
Helsinki Accords (1975): Recognized post–World War II European borders and civil liberties; influenced Eastern Europe’s reform movements.
deregulation: Reducing government restrictions on industries, promoting market-based competition.
Three Mile Island: Nuclear accident; halted expansion of nuclear energy.
Camp David Accords: Peace agreement between Egypt and Israel brokered by Carter.
FOIA: Freedom of Information Act, enabling public access to government records (strengthened post–Watergate).