Key Methodologies in Psychology

Empiricism in Psychology

  • Psychology is empirical and science-driven, not based on common sense or personal fairness.

  • Overviews of research methods focus on how we obtain knowledge about behavior and mental processes.

Methodologies (from weakest to strongest)

  • Case study

    • Definition: In-depth analysis using multiple data sources to build a case.

    • Weakness: Low generalizability; findings may not generalize to other cases.

    • Typical use: Practice settings (e.g., child custody evaluations); not usually published as standalone journal studies.

    • Example notes: In custody evaluations, data come from interviews, records, testing, home visits; reports can be lengthy (often 50–75 pages).

    • Access issues: Often requires a court order or stipulation; confidentiality and privilege protections apply.

  • Ethnography

    • Definition: Qualitative design focused on lived experiences and rich narratives.

    • Weakness: Limited generalizability; highly contextual; often narrative rather than numerical data.

    • Common in: Sociology, anthropology; less common in psychology but used for descriptive insight.

  • Descriptive research

    • Definition: Describes phenomena using numerical data but does not infer causation.

    • Purpose: Describe what A looks like and what B looks like; summarize data with statistics.

    • Key metrics: measures of central tendency and dispersion (mean, median, mode, range).

  • Correlational research

    • Definition: Examines relationships between variables but does not establish causation.

    • Strength: Moves beyond description to identify associations.

  • Experimental research

    • Definition: Manipulates one or more independent variables while controlling others to test causal effects.

    • Strength: Best for inferring causation under controlled conditions.

Case studies (in more detail)

  • Generalizability issue

    • Generalizability = the spread of findings across populations or situations.

    • Case studies provide depth in a single case but offer little assurance that results apply elsewhere.

  • Forensic and custody contexts

    • Example: Custody evaluations include testing, records access via court orders, and home/educational interviews.

    • Professionals: Licensed clinicians with specialized training; confidentiality and professional ethics govern practice.

    • Reports: Often comprehensive and used in court, not just for research publication.

Ethnography (in more detail)

  • Purpose: Capture rich, contextual narratives about a group or setting.

  • Examples discussed:

    • Therapist offices as ethnographic subjects (capturing how environment conveys healing).

    • Classic ethnography examples (e.g., Rosenhan-inspired field notes) illustrate dehumanization and hospital dynamics.

  • Limitations: Generalizability is limited; findings are context-specific; typically qualitative data (interviews, observations).

Descriptive statistics (essentials)

  • Describes a phenomenon using numbers; does not imply causation.

  • Averages and spread

    • Mean: \bar{x}=\frac{1}{n}\sum{i=1}^n xi

    • Range: \text{range}=x{\max}-x{\min}

    • Mode: most frequent value; if two values tie, data are multimodal.

    • Median: the middle value when data are ordered.

  • Example ( exam grades )

    • Suppose:

    • Mean = 85\%

    • Min = 75, Max = 95

    • If two values tie as most frequent (e.g., 75 and 95), the data are multimodal with modes 75 and 95.

Milgram and landmark obedience research

  • Stanley Milgram (late 1950s–1960s)

    • Question: How far would ordinary people go in following authority to harm another person?

    • Setup: Teacher and learner; shocks administered for wrong answers; an authority figure urged continuation.

    • Result: Approximately two-thirds (\approx 0.67) of participants continued to the highest shocks despite the learner's distress.

    • Design notes: Deceptive setup; a white-coated experimenter conveyed authority; procedures included staged signage and staged learning tasks.

    • Ethical considerations: Controversy over deception and potential psychological distress; led to later updates in APA ethics codes.

    • Career impact: Milgram’s work shaped discussion of ethics in research; tenure and reputation were affected at times.

David Rosenhan and Rosenhan-style experiments

  • David Rosenhan (Being Sane in Insane Places, 1973)

    • Pseudopatients admitted to psychiatric hospitals; clinicians often misdiagnosed or dehumanized patients.

    • Lesson: Diagnostic labels can be fragile; hospital environment can influence judgments of clinicians.

Forensic/custody evaluations and ethics (summary)

  • Forensic evaluations

    • Involve capacity, undue influence, etc.

    • Usually require licensure and clinical qualifications; involve access to records via court orders; confidential files are privileged.

  • Ethical considerations

    • Truthfulness in testimony; avoid conflicts of interest; maintain professional ethics even under pressure.

    • Historical cautionary notes (e.g., researchers facing ethical scrutiny for methods).

Takeaways for quick recall

  • Empiricism: Psychology prioritizes evidence from systematic observation.

  • Methodologies vary in strength and generalizability; order from weakest to strongest roughly: case studies → ethnographies → descriptive → correlational → experimental.

  • Descriptive statistics summarize data; mean, median, mode, range are basic tools.

  • Milgram demonstrated strong obedience to authority; ethical debates continue.

  • Rosenhan highlighted issues with psychiatric labeling and hospital practices.

  • Forensic/custody work requires licensing and strict ethical safeguards; court orders enable data access.