Comprehensive Notes on Early Modern European Culture, Economy, and Science (1500–1755)

The Dominion and Ownership of the Seas: Legal Perspectives

• John Selden's Treatise: "Of the Dominion or Ownership of the Sea" (Two Books)

  • Book One Thesis: Argues that by the law of nature or nations, the sea is not common to all men but is capable of private dominion or property in the same manner as land.

  • Book Two Thesis: Asserts that the dominion of the British Sea (the sea encompassing Great Britain) is and has always been an appendant part of that island's empire.

• Responses to Hugo Grotius and "Mare Liberum"

  • Grotius's Intent: Wrote Mare Liberum against Portuguese trade claims in the Atlantic and Southern Oceans. He argued for the community of the sea and against the capacity for private dominion.

  • Title of Discovery: Grotius challenged Portuguese claims based on discovery, primary occupation, and Papal donation.

  • Nature of the Sea vs. the Shore: Grotius argued that the sea, unlike the shore, is not easily capable of building or enclosure, except in very small parts.

  • The Question of Scale: While some conceded that a "Bay or Creek" might be possessed, the central debate concerned the "Ocean," which antiquity termed infinite.

  • Distinction of Seas: Other legal thinkers distinguished "inner and neighboring Seas" (like the North Sea) from the "open Sea" or main Ocean.

• The Development of Coastal Sovereignty

  • Cornelis van Bijnkershoek (1702): The Dutch legist proposed that a state's claim to coastal waters should correspond to the range of its coastal artillery.

  • The "Cannon Shot Rule": This principle eventually became fixed at one league, or approximately $3$ nautical miles.

Economic Expansion and "Tulipmania" in the Netherlands

• Rise of Dutch Trade: By the late $16^{\text{th}}$ century, Dutch cities grew wealthy from routes linking the Baltic, Mediterranean, South Asia, Africa, and the Americas.

• Social Enrichment: Prosperity extended beyond the nobility to merchants, ship owners, and artisans who built substantial houses and wore rich clothing.

• The Tulip Phenomenon

  • Origins: Introduced from Ottoman lands in the $1570\text{s}$; bulbs became signs of wealth.

  • Speculative Bubble ($1630\text{s}$): Bulbs became investments. Between December $1636$ and February $1637$, one variety increased in value by $12$ times.

  • Peak Pricing: The rarest bulbs sold for $3$ times the annual income of a skilled carpenter.

  • The Crash: In February $1637$, investors panicked and unloaded bulbs, leading to financial ruin for many who bought at peak prices.

• Broader Economic Impacts

  • dopeAccumulating wealth spurred manufacturing and innovations: stock markets, commercial insurance, and expanded property rights.

  • The global balance of power shifted as the Dutch eclipsed the Portuguese/Spanish, followed by the British and French besting the Dutch in the $18^{\text{th}}$ century.

The Protestant Reformation

• State of the Papacy in $1500$

  • The Papacy was the preeminent religious/intellectual authority despite corruption and lax clerical standards.

  • Wealth was displayed through the construction of $54$ new churches in Rome, including Saint Peter's Basilica.

  • Pope Leo X (r. 1513–1521): Member of the Medici family; funded Saint Peter's through the sale of indulgences (forgiveness of punishment for past sins).

• Martin Luther (1483–1546)

  • A professor of sacred scripture who rejected the "Romanist" emphasis on "good works."

  • Theology: Argued salvation results from religious faith alone, based on Saint Paul's Epistles.

  • Action: Challenged the theology of indulgences in $1517$, leading to a $1519$ debate where he openly disagreed with church doctrine. He eventually burned the papal bull of condemnation.

• John Calvin (1509–1564)

  • French theologian who emphasized predestination (salvation as a gift from God to those chosen beforehand).

  • Church Governance: Calvinists elected their own committees and synods (councils) to regulate doctrine.

  • Lifestyle: Characterized by simplicity in dress and worship; churches were stripped of statues, musical instruments, and incense.

The Catholic Reformation (Counter-Reformation)

• Council of Trent (1545–1563)

  • Met in Trent and briefly Bologna; reassembled multiple times due to politics and typhus.

  • Outcome: Reaffirmed the supremacy of the Pope and traditional doctrines: salvation through both faith and works, oral confession, and ecclesiastical authority in interpreting Scripture.

  • Reforms: Mandated that bishops reside in their dioceses and established theological seminaries for training priests.

• The Society of Jesus (Jesuits)

  • Founded in $1540$ by Ignatius of Loyola.

  • Focused on teaching, preaching, and global missions (Asia, Africa, Americas) to stem the Protestant tide.

Religious Wars and State Responses

• Spain and the Hapsburgs: Charles V and Philip II focused on defending Catholicism. Spain's Western Hemisphere bullion subsidized military campaigns instead of domestic economic development.

• France: The French Wars of Religion (1562–1598) ended when Henry IV (Prince of Navarre) converted to Catholicism for national unity. He issued the Edict of Nantes in $1598$ (later revoked by Louis XIV).

• England: Henry VIII (r. 1509–1547) broke with the Papacy after being denied an annulment from Catherine of Aragon. Parliament declared the king head of the autonomous Church of England.

Witch-Hunts and Traditional Culture

• Belief Structures: Blended Christian/Jewish scripture with pre-Christian magic, spirits, and spells. Both educated and uneducated believed the Devil had the power to affect society.

• Characteristics of the Pursuit

  • Timing: Crested in the late $16^{\text{th}}$ and $17^{\text{th}}$ centuries.

  • Statistics: Approximately $100,000$ people tried and $60,000$ executed.

  • Demographics: Around $75\%$ of those executed were women.

• Regional Comparisons

  • Germany: High execution rates; the cities of W urzburg and Bamberg executed $900$ and $600$ people respectively between $1626$ and $1631$.

  • Scotland: Executed roughly $3$ times as many as England ($120$ in $1661\text{–}1662$ alone).

  • Spain/France: Low execution rates; the Spanish Inquisition curtailed arrests based solely on accusations as early as $1526$.

  • Sweden: Executed $71$ witches on a single day in $1675$.

  • Russia: $99$ accusations led to $10$ burnings between $1622$ and $1700$.

• End of the Era: By the $18^{\text{th}}$ century, skepticism among judges and the rise of stronger central governments ended mass persecutions.

The Scientific Revolution

• Aristotelian Physics: Taught the earth was composed of earth and water, while the atmosphere held air and fire. Heavenly bodies (sun, moon, planets) were light, pure, and floated in crystalline spheres.

• New Inquiry: Emphasized experimentation, careful observation, and mathematical calculations.

• Galileo (1609): Utilized the astronomical telescope, representing the shift toward evidence-based understanding of the universe.

Chronology of Events (1500–1755)

• 1500–1599

  • 1519: Protestant Reformation begins.

  • 1526–1571: Ottoman attack on Hapsburg Empire.

  • 1540s: Scientific Revolution begins.

  • 1545: Catholic Reformation begins.

  • 1546–1555: German Wars of Religion.

  • 1562–1598: French Wars of Religion.

  • 1566–1648: Netherlands Revolt.

  • 1588: Destruction of the Spanish Armada.

  • 1590s: Dutch develop flyboats; Little Ice Age begins.

• 1600–1699

  • 1600s: Holland's golden century; increasing forest depletion.

  • 1611: First stock exchange built in Amsterdam.

  • 1618–1648: Thirty Years' War.

  • 1636–1637: Tulip bubble in the Netherlands.

  • 1642–1649: English Civil War.

  • 1652–1678: Anglo-Dutch Wars.

  • 1667–1697: Wars of Louis XIV.

  • 1682: Canal du Midi completed.

• 1700–1755

  • 1701–1714: War of the Spanish Succession.

  • 1719–1720: Mississippi Company bubble in France.

  • 1720: South Sea Company bubble in England.

  • 1750: English mine nearly $5 \text{ million}$ tons of coal annually.

  • 1755: Lisbon earthquake (interpreted by some as divine punishment).

Questions & Discussion

• 1. How would questions about the Law of the Sea have affected trade?

  • Sovereignty over waters (dominion) could lead to taxes, restricted passage, or exclusive trading rights for a specific nation, as seen with the Portuguese in the Indies.

• 2. If the seas were open equally to everyone, how could piracy be defined?

  • Without clear territorial boundaries (dominion), piracy remains a complex legal issue regarding who has the authority to arrest/prosecute individuals in international waters.

• 3. Why are Law of the Sea issues still open for debate?

  • Modern issues regarding fishing rights, seabed resource ownership (oil/minerals), and environmental regulations keep these $17^{\text{th}}\text{-century}$ legal debates relevant.

### The Protestant Reformation - **State of the Papacy in $1500$** - The Papacy was the preeminent religious/intellectual authority despite corruption and lax clerical standards. - Wealth was displayed through the construction of $54$ new churches in Rome, including Saint Peter's Basilica. - **Pope Leo X (r. 1513–1521)**: Member of the Medici family; funded Saint Peter's through the sale of **indulgences** (forgiveness of punishment for past sins). - **Martin Luther (1483–1546)** - A professor of sacred scripture who rejected the "Romanist" emphasis on "good works." - **Theology**: Argued salvation results from religious faith alone, based on Saint Paul's Epistles. - **Action**: Challenged the theology of indulgences in $1517$, leading to a $1519$ debate where he openly disagreed with church doctrine. He eventually burned the papal bull of condemnation. - **John Calvin (1509–1564)** - French theologian who emphasized **predestination** (salvation as a gift from God to those chosen beforehand). - **Church Governance**: Calvinists elected their own committees and synods (councils) to regulate doctrine. - **Lifestyle**: Characterized by simplicity in dress and worship; churches were stripped of statues, musical instruments, and incense. - **The Catholic Reformation (Counter-Reformation)** - **Council of Trent (1545–1563)** - Met in Trent and briefly Bologna; reassembled multiple times due to politics and typhus. - **Outcome**: Reaffirmed the supremacy of the Pope and traditional doctrines: salvation through both faith and works, oral confession, and ecclesiastical authority in interpreting Scripture. - **Reforms**: Mandated that bishops reside in their dioceses and established theological seminaries for training priests. - **The Society of Jesus (Jesuits)** - Founded in $1540$ by **Ignatius of Loyola**. - Focused on teaching, preaching, and global missions (Asia, Africa, Americas) to stem the Protestant tide. - **Religious Wars and State Responses** - **Spain and the Hapsburgs**: Charles V and Philip II focused on defending Catholicism. Spain's Western Hemisphere bullion subsidized military campaigns instead of domestic economic development. - **France**: The **French Wars of Religion (1562–1598)** ended when Henry IV (Prince of Navarre) converted to Catholicism for national unity. He issued the **Edict of Nantes** in $1598$ (later revoked by Louis XIV). - **England**: Henry VIII (r. 1509–1547) broke with the Papacy after being denied an annulment from Catherine of Aragon. Parliament declared the king head of the autonomous **Church of England**.