Virtue Ethics Overview

Section 4: Virtue Ethics Overview

• What is Virtue Ethics?
  • A moral theory focusing on character rather than merely actions or consequences.
  • Non-consequentialist: The rightness of actions depends on the agent's character and virtues, not solely on outcomes.

Act-Centered vs Agent-Centered Theories

• Act-centered:
  • Judges morality based on the action itself (e.g., "Was this act right?").
• Agent-centered:
  • Judges morality based on the person's character (e.g., "Was this a virtuous person?").

Aristotle and Virtue Ethics

• Why Aristotle?
  • Developed one of the earliest and most influential accounts of virtue ethics, emphasizing character, habit, and the good life.
• What is Eudaimonia?
  • Often translated as flourishing or the good life.
  • Eudaimonia is objective and moralized: it refers not just to feeling good but to living well by being virtuous.

Comparisons with Other Philosophers

• John Stuart Mill:
  • Happiness is defined as pleasure and the absence of pain (subjective/utilitarian approach).
• Immanuel Kant:
  • Happiness does not equate to moral worth; Good Will is more significant than happiness itself.

Aristotle's Key Views on Ethics

• "Every action aims at some good":
  • Aristotle asserts all human actions aim at a perceived good, with the ultimate aim being eudaimonia.
• Aristotle on Youth and Ethics:
  • Young people struggle with ethical studies due to lack of life experience and emotional stability.
• Continent vs Incontinent Person:
  • Continent: Knows what is right and acts according to it despite contrary desires.
  • Incontinent: Knows what is right but fails to follow through with those actions.
• Eudaimon Life = Best Life:
  • Incorporates reason, virtue, and external goods, leading to comprehensive goodness.

The Function Argument

• Function Argument:
  • Every being has a specific function, with humans being defined by rational activity.
  • A good human is one who reasons well in accordance with virtue.
• Why animals/children can’t be eudaimon:
  • They lack the full rational faculties and the lifelong habituation in virtue necessary for eudaimonia.

Parts of the Soul

• Distinction between rational (reason) and non-rational (emotions/desires) parts of the soul.

Aristotle vs Kant on Moral Philosophy

• Kant:
  • Place a strong emphasis on reason and duty.
• Aristotle:
  • Highlights harmony between reason and desire achieved through virtue.

Virtue and Moral Actions

• Virtue = Not always enough:
  • Virtue is essential but not always sufficient; external goods also play a significant role.
• Aristotle’s 3 Conditions for Virtuous Action (II.4):
  1. Know what you are doing.
  2. Choose it for its own sake.
  3. Act from a firm and stable character.
• Virtue as the Mean (II.6):
  • Virtue is a disposition to choose the mean between excess and deficiency (relative to individual circumstances).

Examples of Virtues (II.7)

Hursthouse – “Virtue Theory and Abortion”

• Why read it?
  • Applies virtue ethics to modern issues like abortion, providing moral guidance.

Responding to Criticisms of Virtue Ethics

• Aim of First Half:
  • Address criticisms and defend the practical usefulness of virtue ethics.
• 9 Objections & Hursthouse’s Replies:
  • Group 1: Theoretical Clarity Issues:
  1. Eudaimonia is obscure: Clarified through moral reflection/examples.
  2. Circular definition: Not circular; it defines virtue through practice and tradition.
  3. Lack of imperatives: Guides through character/context rather than strict rules.
  4. Absence of rules/principles: That's inherent; virtue ethics isn't rule-based.
  5. Reductionism: Integrates rich moral psychology and context.
  • Group 2: Relativism/Skepticism:
  1. Vulnerability of the virtue list: Core virtues shared across traditions.
  2. Conflicted virtues: Navigating these conflicts is a part of practical wisdom.
  • Group 3: Thin on Reasoning:
  1. Assertion without reasoning: All theories rely on common moral intuitions.
  2. Assumptions of value: Values are shaped by reflection and experience.

Condition of Adequacy for Moral Theories

• A moral theory must:
  • Guide action.
  • Justify itself.
  • Resonate with moral experience.
• Clever Adolescent Objection:
  • The theory shouldn't be judged simply on its ability to persuade a skeptical teen; its richness goes beyond that.

Hursthouse's View on Abortion

• Fetus, Rights & Violinist Case:
  • Hursthouse emphasizes the moral implications of abortion on a good life rather than settling the fetal status biologically.
  • References Judith Jarvis Thomson’s thought experiment (violinist case) to highlight limitations of rights-based approaches.
  • "Familiar Biological Facts": Pregnancy's moral weight goes beyond being a biological condition.
• Pro-life vs Pro-choice:
  • Hursthouse avoids these labels, opting to center the discussion on virtue, character, and the seriousness of moral decisions.

Contributions to Abortion Discussion

1. Emphasizes moral character, not just rights/consequences.
2. Acknowledges complexity and emotional depth of the decision.
3. Moves beyond polarized debates.
4. Centers on virtue cultivation in moral decision-making.
5. Demonstrates the practical value of virtue ethics.

Hursthouse – "Applying Virtue Ethics to Our Treatment of Other Animals"

• What is Moral Status?
  • Determines whether a being deserves direct moral consideration.
• Direct vs Indirect Obligations:
  • Direct: Owed to the being itself (e.g., an animal).
  • Indirect: Owed to others based on what the act represents (e.g., cruelty harms our character).

Theorists on Moral Status

Moral Agency Defined

• What is Moral Agency?

• The capacity to make moral decisions.

• Can Virtue Ethics Ignore Moral Status?
  • Hursthouse argues it can: focuses on character rather than fixed criteria.
  • We should treat animals well since cruelty is considered vicious.

Practical Examples in Virtue Ethics

• Cat Example:
  • We place different values on our pets and moral treatment is based on relationships, not rigid hierarchies of value.
• Is Vegetarianism a Virtue?
  • No, inherently it is not a virtue, but cruelty-free living can be a virtuous choice based on context and motivations.
• Animal Experimentation:
  • Needs evaluation based on whether it reflects vicious traits (e.g., cruelty, callousness).
  • This is distinct from Singer and Regan's viewpoints, which analyze through suffering and rights, respectively.
• "Extreme Practicality" of Virtue Ethics:
  • Rejects reliance on abstract rules, focusing instead on actions a virtuous person would take.
• "Human-Centered" Ethics:
  • Concentrates on cultivating human virtues, which although may seem limited, can still provide meaningful insights into human-animal relations.