Notes on the Crisis of the Empire and the Hundred Years' War

The Crisis of the Empire

The Vacant Throne and the "Great Interregnum"

  • The death of Frederick II in 1250, followed by the demise of his descendants Manfredi and Corradino, marked the end of the Hohenstaufen dynasty.
  • This led to a period of power struggles in Germany known as the "Great Interregnum" (1254-1273), during which the imperial throne remained vacant due to dynastic conflicts.
  • During this time, German territories, including bishoprics, lordships, and cities, expanded their autonomy, taking advantage of the absence of a strong central authority.

The Rise of the Habsburgs and the Formation of Switzerland

  • The interregnum concluded with the election of Rudolf I of Habsburg (1273-1291), who shifted focus away from Italy and initiated a process of "Germanization" of the Empire.
  • Rudolf I restored royal power in Germany, attempting to curb territorial fragmentation and extend his influence to regions like Styria, Carniola, Carinthia, and Tyrol.
  • In 1291, to counter Habsburg expansion, the mountain regions (cantons) of Uri, Unterwalden, and Schwyz formed a pact of self-governance, which evolved into the Swiss Confederation.
  • The Habsburgs eventually recognized Swiss independence with the Peace of Basel in 1499, following numerous conflicts.

Italian Expeditions of Henry VII and Ludovico IV

  • After Rudolf I and his successor Albert I, Henry VII of Luxembourg (1308-1313) assumed the imperial title and sought to restore imperial authority in Italy.
  • Henry VII aimed to pacify conflicts between Guelphs and Ghibellines and reinstate imperial grandeur but faced increased factionalism among Italian communes.
  • He was crowned emperor in Rome in 1312 amid difficulties but died suddenly in 1313.
  • Ludovico IV of Bavaria (1328-1347) also intervened in Italy, aligning himself against Pope John XXII (1316-1334) and being excommunicated.
  • Ludovico IV was crowned emperor on the Capitoline Hill in 1328 by Roman nobles, symbolizing a move away from papal legitimacy, influenced by Marsilio da Padova's concept in Defensor pacis (1324).
  • Marsilio da Padova argued that imperial and papal authority should be legitimized by the consent of citizens and their representatives.

The Golden Bull

  • Ludovico IV, in the Diet of Rhens (1338), asserted that the imperial title belonged by right to the King of Germany and required only the approval of the prince-electors.
  • However, in 1346, the German prince-electors deposed Ludovico IV, suspecting him of trying to make the imperial office hereditary.
  • Charles IV of Luxembourg, successor to Ludovico, issued the Golden Bull in 1356, which formalized the process of imperial succession.
  • The Golden Bull designated seven prince-electors (four lay and three ecclesiastical) to elect the emperor, solidifying the "Germanization" of the Empire initiated by Rudolf I.
  • German emperors were now compelled to negotiate with powerful noble dynasties, limiting their ability to impose authority unilaterally.

The Papacy of Avignon and the Great Schism

Consolidation of Papal Power
  • Under Innocent III, the papacy reached the height of its power, asserting supremacy over the entire Christian world.
  • Successors of Innocent III maintained this teocratic model, actively participating in political events, particularly the conflict with Emperor Frederick II.
  • The popes sought to strengthen the territorial foundations of the Papal States, bringing Romagna and Marche under their influence.
  • However, many cities in central Italy, such as Bologna, Perugia, and Rome, maintained communal institutions, and the Papal States consisted of independent rural communities, lordships, and fiefs.
  • Successors of Innocent III continued to strengthen the papal curia to govern more efficiently and assert control over local powers.
Criticism and Calls for Reform
  • The growing wealth and splendor of the curia led to criticism within the Christian world.
  • Pauperistic movements called for the pope to renounce earthly possessions and return to a simpler Church model based on evangelical values.
  • The Church strongly opposed these movements, often declaring them heretical.
From Celestine V to Boniface VIII
  • Reform ideas existed within the ecclesiastical hierarchy, leading to the election of the hermit Pietro da Morrone as Celestine V in 1294.
  • Celestine V raised hopes for Church reform but faced opposition from clergy unwilling to relinquish their privileges.
  • Feeling inadequate, Celestine V abdicated, and Benedetto Caetani became Boniface VIII (1294-1303).
  • Boniface VIII, from a Roman aristocratic family, practiced rampant nepotism, favoring his family members with prestigious appointments and concessions.
  • A staunch supporter of the teocratic program, Boniface VIII emphasized the spiritual primacy of the papacy, asserting that only he could grant salvation to Christians as the vicar of Christ.
  • In 1300, he proclaimed the Holy Year (Jubilee), granting plenary indulgence to pilgrims who visited Rome.
Conflict with Philip IV the Fair of France
  • Boniface VIII's teocratic ambitions led to conflict with Philip IV the Fair of France (1285-1314), who sought to strengthen the crown.
  • The conflict began over fiscal and jurisdictional issues, as Philip IV ordered the French clergy to pay taxes to the king.
  • Boniface VIII opposed this imposition, which would have depleted papal coffers, and Philip retaliated by prohibiting the export of gold and silver from France.
  • Boniface VIII issued the bull Unam Sanctam in 1302, asserting the superiority of spiritual power over civil power.
The States-General and the End of Boniface VIII
  • Philip IV convened the States-General, an assembly of representatives from French society, to gain support against the Pope.
  • Supported by jurist Guglielmo di Nogaret, who asserted the king's supremacy, Philip IV sent an armed expedition to arrest Boniface VIII in Anagni.
  • Boniface VIII was briefly imprisoned and insulted, leading to his death shortly thereafter.
The Papacy Moves to Avignon
  • After Boniface VIII's death, Philip IV secured the election of Bertrand de Got as Clement V, who moved the Papacy to Avignon in 1309.
  • The move to Avignon, intended as temporary, lasted until 1377 and caused scandal in Italy, where it was known as the "Avignon Captivity."
  • The French monarchy heavily influenced the papal government, with French popes and cardinals dominating the curia.
  • Clement V faced pressure from Philip IV to condemn Boniface VIII and suppress the Templars, eventually ordering the suppression of the Templars in 1312.
Strengthening the Curia in Avignon
  • The Avignon period was not entirely negative for the Papacy, as it continued to strengthen its monarchical power.
  • The papal curia was reorganized with five major offices: the Apostolic Chancery, the Apostolic Chamber, the Dataria, the Sacra Penitenzieria, and the Sacra Rota.
  • The Papal States were divided into five provinces governed by cardinal vicars, and the Pope controlled the appointment of bishops and abbots.
  • The curia improved the collection of tithes and revenues through a network of nuncios and apostolic collectors.
The Western Schism
  • In 1377, Gregory XI returned the curia to Rome, but upon his death, a crisis arose when French clergy elected an antipope, Clement VII, who resided in Avignon.
  • This led to the Western Schism (1377-1414), with two rival popes and curiae in Rome and Avignon.
  • European monarchies aligned with either the Roman or Avignon pope, leading to a divided Church.
The Council of Constance
  • The Council of Pisa in 1409 attempted to resolve the schism by electing a new pope, Alexander V, but the two existing popes refused to step down, resulting in three popes.
  • In 1414, Sigismund of Luxembourg convened the Council of Constance, which deposed the various popes and elected Martin V (1417-1431), formally reuniting the Catholic world.
  • Martin V then moved the seat of the papacy definitively back to Rome.

The Hundred Year's War

Background

  • The 14th century was defined by territorial expansionism of European monarchies, leading to conflicts that reshaped the political order
  • The war between France and England lasted, with interruptions, from 1337 to 1453.
  • England still held Guienne in Southwestern France, making the English King a formal vassal of France, source of instability.
  • England had economic interests in Flanders, exporting wool. They also supported autonomy for the Dukedom of Brittany.

Catalysts

  • In 1328, Charles IV of France died without direct heirs - Edward III of England claimed the French throne as the son of Charles IV's sister, Isabella.
  • French dignitaries elected Philip VI of Valois as King, wary of English ambitions. Edward III initially paid homage but then landed in Calais to claim the throne, starting the war.

First Phase (1337-1360)

  • England won the Battle of Crécy in 1346 and Battle of Poitiers in 1356, capturing King John II, who eventually died in London.
  • English archers with longbows were superior, leading to the Peace of Brétigny in 1360. This granted Edward III Aquitaine and Calais, and France Recognized these Conquests however he renounced the French Crown
  • The Black Death suspended the fighting between 1347 and 1355.

The Dukedom of Burgundy

  • The conflict consolidated the Dukedom of Burgundy - in 1363, King John II gave the Dukedom to his son, Philip the Bold, who married Margaret of Flanders, bringing Flanders, Artois and Franca Contea.
  • Burgundy became a commercial hub between France and the Holy Roman Empire.
  • Philip the Bold allied with France until his death in 1404. His son, John the Fearless, allied with England.

Second Phase

  • War resumed in 1369 under Charles V of France (1364-1380).
  • France used guerilla tactics to cut English supplies, and recovered some territories with some English cities such as Bordeaux and Calais remaining
  • England had a dynastic crisis in 1377 - Richard II was only ten, so John of Grand, Duke of Lancaster, was appointed regent.
  • In 1399, Henry IV deposed Richard III. In France, Charles VI had mental health problems, resulting in disputes by his relatives.
  • John the Fearless led the Burgundians, while Louis of Orléans was supported by the Armagnacs.
  • Civil war ensued, leading to massacres and devastation. Some sought refuge in fortified cities, leading to disease and starvation.
  • Burgundians sought aid from Henry V of England, who won the Battle of Agincourt in 1415. Northwest France, including Paris, was conquered.
  • The Treaty of Troyes in 1420 gave Catherine of France in marriage to Henry V, along with the regency. Charles Vi and Henry V died in the same year Henry VI thus inherited

Joan of Arc

  • France was split between English regency supporters and those backing Charles of Valois.
  • Joan claimed a divine mandate to save France, and in 1429, inspired troops liberated Orléans and Charles was consecrated as King, Charles VII
  • Despite the military victory She then was captured and burned