Comprehensive Introduction to General Psychology and Systems

Foundations and Definitions of Psychology

• Etymology and Definition
  • Psychology is derived from two Greek terms:
    • Psyche: Meaning "mind."
    • Logos: Meaning "science."
  • It is formally defined as the science of cognitive processes and behavior.
  • Science: Refers to the field being proven through rigorous research.
  • Cognitive processes: Refers specifically to internal thinking processes.
  • Behaviour: Refers to observable actions that can be seen and measured.

Philosophical and Physiological Roots of Psychology

• Conceptual Origins

  • Psychology emerged from ideas found within the disciplines of philosophy and physiology.
  • Early focus was placed on the link between the body and the mind, driving subsequent research.

• Dualism

  • Theorist: René Descartes ($1596 - 1650$).
  • Core Concept: The mind and body are distinct, separate entities.
  • Interaction Mechanism: Descartes proposed that these two distinct entities interact through the pineal gland, which is located deep within the brain.

• Interactionalism

  • A perspective suggesting a bidirectional relationship where:
    • The mind possesses the capacity to influence the body.
    • The body possesses the capacity to influence the mind.

• Physiological Contributors ($1860$ to $1880$)

  • Johannes Müller: Explored how electrical signals are conducted by nerves within the body.
  • Hermann von Helmholtz: Investigated how receptors in the eyes and ears receive and interpret sensations originating from the outside world.
  • Gustav Fechner: Focused on the perceptions of physical stimuli, categorized as physical energies.

The Establishment of Psychology as a Scientific Field

• Chronological Milestones
  • $1876$: Alexander Bain authored the journal Mind and several other psychology-related books. He was also responsible for training others in the field.
  • $1879$: Wilhelm Wundt founded the very first laboratory dedicated to psychology in Germany at the University of Leipzig.
  • $1883$: G. Stanley Hall founded the first psychology laboratory in the United States at Johns Hopkins University.
  • $1892$: G. Stanley Hall established the American Psychological Association (APA).
  • $1893$: By this year, $24$ universities in the USA had established their own psychology laboratories.

Early Schools of Thought in Psychology

• Structuralism

  • An early view suggesting psychology should focus on identifying the basic structures of the human mind.
  • Proponent: Wilhelm Wundt.
  • Methodology: Introspection, which is the selective method where subjects report detailed accounts of their own conscious experiences.

• Functionalism

  • An early view suggesting the field should focus on the specific functions of consciousness.
  • Major Proponent: William James.
  • Theoretic Influence: Heavily influenced by Charles Darwin’s theory of natural selection.
  • Legacy: This school of thought led to the development of Evolutionary Psychology.

• Behaviourism

  • The view that psychology should only study observable activities that can be measured scientifically.
  • Key Figures: John B. Watson and B. F. Skinner.

• Gestalt Psychology

  • Focuses on how the mind organizes information into patterns or wholes.
  • Core Principles:
    • Similarity.
    • Closure (the tendency to complete unfinished shapes).
    • Proximity (grouping items that are close together).
    • Continuation.
    • Figure and Ground (the ability to distinguish an object from its background; for example, perceiving a tree within the shape of the letter "A").

Significant Contributors to the Field of Psychology

• Historical and Modern Figures:
  • Sigmund Freud
  • Carl Jung
  • William James
  • Abraham Maslow
  • Carl Rogers
  • Wilhelm Wundt
  • G. Stanley Hall
  • Jean Piaget
  • Lev Vygotsky
  • Ivan Pavlov
  • J.B. Watson
  • B.F. Skinner
  • Albert Bandura
  • Erik Erikson
  • Lawrence Kohlberg
  • Albert Ellis
  • Stanley Milgram
  • Solomon Asch
  • Philip Zimbardo

Modern Approaches in Psychology

• Biological Approach

  • Attributes behavior and mental states to physiological reasons.
  • Chemical: Imbalances, such as the lack or excess of hormones.
  • Anatomical: Structural damage within the brain.
  • Neurological: The function or dysfunction of neurotransmitters.
  • Genetic: Traits and predispositions inherited through genes.
  • Key Case Study: Phineas Gage (noted for the relationship between brain injury and personality change).

• Cognitive Approach

  • Focuses on internal mental processes, such as thinking and memory.
  • Model: Relates the human mind to a computer using the 'information processing paradigm.'
  • Workflow: Input $\rightarrow$ Process $\rightarrow$ Output.

• Learning Approach

  • Classical Conditioning: Learning through the pairing of stimuli. (Example: Watson’s study on Little Albert).
  • Operant Conditioning: Learning through rewards and punishment.
  • Observational Learning: Learning by imitating the behavior of others.

• Social Approach

  • Examines how behavior is influenced by other people.
  • Influencers: Family, friends, neighbors, and the media.

• Developmental Approach

  • Studies the changes that occur in humans as they age, from birth until death.
  • Lifespan Stages:
    • Prenatal
    • Infancy
    • Early childhood
    • Late childhood
    • Youth
    • Early adulthood
    • Middle adulthood
    • Late adulthood

• Individual Differences

  • Operates on the premise that each person is unique and different from others.

• Psychodynamic Approach

  • Attributes behavior to the unconscious mind.
  • The Three Parts of Personality:
    1. Id: Represents basic wants and desires.
    2. Superego: Represents moral and ethical standards.
    3. Ego: Acts as the mediator between the Id and the Superego.

The Nature-Nurture Debate

• Nature Perspective

  • Proponent: René Descartes.
  • View: All beings are born with innate abilities that are present from the moment of birth.

• Nurture Perspective

  • Proponent: John Locke ($1689$).
  • View: At birth, the mind is a tabula rasa (a blank slate).
  • Process: We fill this blank slate with "ideas" based on our experiences within our environment.