Moral Development

Definition: Moral development refers to changes in thoughts, feelings, and behaviors regarding standards of right and wrong.
- Aspects to Consider:
- Cognitions: How do individuals reason or think about moral decisions?
- Behaviors: How do individuals actually behave in moral circumstances?
- Emotions: How do individuals feel about moral matters?
- Moral Personality: What characterizes an individual’s moral personality?

Heteronomous Morality (Ages 4-7):
- Justice and rules are seen as unchangeable.
- Judgement of goodness is made by considering the consequences of actions rather than intentions.
- Immanent Justice: This is the belief that if a rule is broken, punishment is unavoidable; unfortunate events are automatically linked to a transgression.
  - Would look at that 5 glasses broke, not that one broke, and punishment for getting caught does instill a sense of morality, basically the punishment fits the crime
Transition Stage (Ages 7-10):
- Developmental progress from heteronomous to autonomous thinking.
Autonomous Morality (Ages 10 and older):
- Recognizes that rules and laws are created by people; individuals judge goodness by considering both intentions and consequences.
- Punishment occurs only if someone witnesses the wrongdoing, meaning that punishment is not inevitable.
- Peer interactions play a critical role in the development of moral reasoning.
  - Would look at why the glass broke and doesn't really listen to punishments or fear. Instead, they focus on understanding the situation, demonstrating a deeper level of moral reasoning that emphasizes empathy and comprehension over mere obedience.

Three Main Stages:
- Preconventional (up to 9 years): Good and bad are defined in terms of external rewards and punishments.
  - Such as getting a sticker means you were good,
  - losing fun Fridays means you were bad
- Conventional (Early adolescence): Moral standards are set by others, such as societal norms.
- Postconventional (Early adulthood): Individuals explore alternative moral options and develop a personal moral code.
Developmental Processes:
- Development of moral reasoning is facilitated by opportunities for perspective-taking and experiencing moral dilemmas.
- Heinz's Dilemma Example: A moral dilemma presented in interviews aimed at assessing children's moral reasoning.
- Importance of interaction to challenge children's moral reasoning.

Some critics argue that there is excessive emphasis on cognitive thought at the expense of observed behavior.
Kohlerb’s perspective suggests moral reasoning is deliberative, while Haidt challenges that it is frequently instinctive.
Kohlberg downplays emotions’ beneficent influence on moral reasoning.
Some argue the theory lacks cultural universality; his findings may impose a Western perspective on morality.
Critiques emphasize a gender difference in moral reasoning, where Gilligan proposes that traditional studies prioritize male norms (justice orientation) over female perspectives (care perspective).

Distinguishes between:
- Moral Competence: Knowledge and skills regarding moral rules and regulatory frameworks.
- Moral Performance: Actual behaviors driven by motivation, rewards, and incentives.
Bandura's Contributions:
- Moral development involves both social and cognitive factors, anchored in self-control.
- Learning moral behavior is influenced by reinforcements, punishments, and role modeling.
Effectiveness of moral instruction is contingent on consistency of rewards & punishments and the characteristics of the model being imitated.
Moral behavior varies per situation and self-regulation is key in resisting temptation.

Freudian Perspective:
- Guilt and the desire to avoid it are foundational to moral behavior.
- Superego: Represents the moral branch of personality encompassing two components:
- Ego Ideal: Rewards the child with pride when behavior aligns with parental standards.
- Conscience: Inflicts guilt for disapproved behaviors.
Contemporary Views:
- Current understanding emphasizes that conscience derives from close social relationships and is broader than mere discipline.
- Recent research highlights guilt's role in moral development and internalization of parental values by young children.

Definition: Empathy is the ability to respond emotionally to the feelings of another person, coupled with perspective-taking and understanding their psychological state.
Observations in early childhood show that children typically react empathetically to the distress of others.
Reference to Damon’s Developmental Changes in Empathy captures the evolution of empathetic responses in children.

Three Different Ethics that inform moral reasoning worldwide, varying in balance across cultures:
- Ethic of Autonomy: Focuses on individual rights and the absence of harm to others.
- Ethic of Community: Stresses duty, loyalty, and concern for familial and social welfare.
- Ethic of Divinity: Emphasizes adherence to divine laws and the pursuit of spiritual purity.

Dual-Process Model: Proposed by Greene, distinguishes between emotional/intuitive and deliberative thought in moral decision-making.
Examines circumstances under which individuals rely on immediate intuitions versus analytical reasoning, highlighting corresponding brain functions.

Definition: Moral identity encompasses the thoughts, behaviors, and feelings integrated into an individual’s moral persona.
Key Components:
- Moral Identity: Reflects an individual’s moral commitments and how they influence self-perception. Actions that contradict moral commitments jeopardize self-integrity.
- Moral Character: Relates to the strength of an individual's convictions in the face of challenges.
- Moral Motivation: The prioritization of moral values over personal interests.
- Moral Virtues: Elements emphasized include honesty, care, compassion, dependability, and loyalty.
Moral Exemplars: Individuals recognized for their outstanding moral behavior, e.g., Gandhi and Mother Teresa.

Definitions:
- Religiousness: Participation in organized religion and adherence to its beliefs.
- Spirituality: A quest for existential meaning and connection to something greater.
Benefits:
- Both are linked to improvements in physical and mental health and an overall sense of wellbeing.
- Particularly impactful in late adulthood, fostering meaning and purpose.
- Participation in caring communities manifests significant effects, especially among specific racial and ethnic groups, like African American and Caribbean Blacks aged 55 and older who report high religious engagement.