Anatomy and Physiology Overview

Chapter 8: Anatomy

Central Nervous System

  • Components:
    • Brain
    • Spinal Cord

Diseases/Disorders/Abnormal Conditions

  • Multiple Sclerosis
    • Definition: Chronic inflammatory disease of the CNS in which immune cells attack the myelin sheath of nerve cell axons.
  • Cerebral Palsy
    • Definition: A group of disorders affecting a person’s ability to move and maintain balance and posture.
  • Encephalitis
    • Definition: Inflammation of the brain caused by bacteria or virus.
  • Poliomyelitis
    • Definition: Viral infection involving the CNS which causes paralysis.
  • Alzheimer’s Disease
    • Definition: Progressive disease in which the initial symptoms are usually problems remembering recently learned information.
  • Dementia
    • Definition: Not a specific disease, but rather a general term for impaired ability to remember, think, and make decisions that interfere with daily activities.
  • Parkinson’s Disease
    • Characterized by:
    • Shuffling gait
    • Tremors
    • Pill-rolling
    • Muscular rigidity
  • Hydrocephalus
    • Definition: Abnormal buildup of fluid in the ventricles within the brain.
  • Epilepsy
    • Definition: Brain disorder that causes seizures.
  • Meningitis
    • Definition: Inflammation of the lining of the brain and spinal cord.

Chapter 9: Anatomy

Peripheral Nervous System

  • Components:
    • Sensory Neurons
    • Function: Carries messages, or impulses, towards the spinal cord and brain.
    • Motor Neurons
    • Function: Carries messages, or impulses, from the brain.

Diseases/Disorders/Abnormal Conditions

  • Reference Chapter 8 Above

Chapter 10: Anatomy

Eye

  • Components:
    • Sclera
    • The outer layer of the eye.
    • Choroid
    • The middle layer of the eye.
    • Retina
    • The innermost layer of the eye.
    • Cornea
    • Transparent outer layer of the anterior aspect of the eye.
    • Lens
    • Biconvex structure of the eye which refracts light rays.
    • Lacrimal Glands
    • Secretes tears.
    • Conjunctiva
    • Membrane covering the anterior portion of the eye.

Ear

  • Components:
    • Outer Ear
    • Pinna
    • External auditory canal
    • Tympanic Membrane
    • Middle Ear
    • Tympanic Membrane
    • Malleus (Hammer)
    • Incus (Anvil)
    • Stapes (Stirrup)
    • Eustachian Tube
    • Inner Ear
    • Cochlea (Organ of Corti)
    • Semicircular Canals
    • Vestibulocochlear (Auditory) Nerve

Tongue

  • Components:
    • Taste Buds
    • Types: Sweet, Sour, Salty, and Bitter

Diseases/Disorders/Abnormal Conditions

  • Deviated Septum
    • Definition: Condition in which there is a bend in the cartilage structure of the nose.
  • Nasal Polyps
    • Definition: Excessive tissue growth inside the nasal cavity.
  • Rhinitis
    • Definition: Inflammation of the lining of the nasal cavity.
  • Otitis Media
    • Definition: Infection of the middle ear.
  • Otosclerosis
    • Definition: Condition in which there is abnormal bone growth in the middle ear.
  • Tinnitus
    • Definition: Ringing sound in the ears.
  • Amblyopia
    • Definition: Reduction or dimness in vision (lazy eye).
  • Astigmatism
    • Definition: Irregular curvature of the cornea or lens.
  • Glaucoma
    • Definition: Excessive intraocular pressure.
  • Myopia
    • Definition: Nearsightedness.
  • Strabismus
    • Definition: Cross-eyes.

Chapter 11: Anatomy

Endocrine Glands

  • Function: Secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream, not through ducts.
  • Components:
    • Pituitary Gland
    • Location: At the base of the brain; considered the master gland; controls other endocrine glands by secreting stimulating hormones.
    • Consists of two lobes:
      • Anterior Pituitary
      • Hormones secreted:
        • Growth Hormone (GH)
        • Prolactin (PRL)
        • Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
        • Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone (MSH)
        • Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH)
        • Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
        • Luteinizing Hormone (LH)
      • Posterior Pituitary
      • Hormones secreted:
        • Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
        • Oxytocin
    • Pineal Gland
    • Location: Posterior of the brain; secretes melatonin.
    • Thyroid Gland
    • Location: In the throat; secretes Triiodothyronine (T3), Thyroxin (T4), and Calcitonin.
    • Parathyroid Glands
    • Location: Posterior to thyroid; secretes Parathyroid Hormone/Parathormone.
    • Thymus Gland
    • Also a lymph gland; located in chest; atrophies at puberty; secretes Thymosin.
    • Pancreas
    • Also an exocrine gland; located in abdomen; secretes Insulin and Glucagon.
    • Adrenal Glands
    • Location: Superior to the kidneys; consists of two parts:
      • Adrenal Cortex
      • Outer layer; secretes Aldosterone, Glucocorticoids, Mineralocorticoids, and Androgens.
      • Adrenal Medulla
      • Inner layer; secretes Epinephrine (Adrenaline) and Norepinephrine.
    • Testes
    • Male sex glands; produce Testosterone.
    • Ovaries
    • Female sex glands; produce Estrogen and Progesterone.

Terms

  • Polydipsia
    • Definition: Excessive thirst.
  • Polyphagia
    • Definition: Excessive hunger.
  • Polyuria
    • Definition: Excessive urine output.

Diseases/Disorders/Abnormal Conditions

  • Gigantism
    • Definition: Hypersecretion of the pituitary gland in preadolescence.
  • Dwarfism
    • Definition: Hyposecretion of the growth hormone.
  • Diabetes Mellitus
    • Definition: Metabolic autoimmune disease resulting in insufficient insulin production and inappropriate carbohydrate metabolism.
  • Cushing Syndrome
    • Definition: Disorder of the adrenal cortex producing too much cortisol.

Chapter 17: Anatomy

Respiratory System Components

  • Sinuses
    • Definition: Cavities in the bones of the skull.
  • Pharynx
    • Definition: Throat; serves as passageway for air and food.
  • Larynx
    • Definition: Voice box; contains vocal cords.
  • Trachea
    • Definition: Windpipe; connects pharynx to bronchi.
  • Bronchi
    • Definition: Tubes that connect the windpipe to the smaller tubes within the lungs.
  • Alveoli
    • Definition: Air sacs where gas exchange is made between lungs and bloodstream.
  • Diaphragm
    • Definition: Muscle that expands and relaxes to change the pressure in the chest cavity.

Terms

  • External Respiration
    • Definition: Exchange of gases between the lungs, body, and the outside environment.
  • Internal Respiration
    • Definition: Exchange of gases between the blood and the cells (process of diffusion).
  • Cellular Respiration
    • Also known as oxidation; burning O2 within the cells producing CO2.
  • Tidal Volume
    • Definition: The amount of air that moves in and out of the lungs with each breath.
  • Total Lung Capacity
    • Definition: The total amount of air lungs can hold.
  • Apnea
    • Definition: Temporary cessation of breathing.
  • Dyspnea
    • Definition: Difficulty breathing.
  • Tachypnea
    • Definition: Abnormally rapid and shallow breathing.
  • Hyperpnea
    • Definition: Breathing abnormally deep and sometimes faster than normal.

Diseases/Disorders/Abnormal Conditions

  • Asthma
    • Definition: Inflammatory response that obstructs the airways.
  • Pulmonary Embolism
    • Definition: Blood clot in the lungs; usually resulting from prolonged sitting or bed rest after surgery; caused from deep vein thrombosis (DVT) normally found in the leg.
  • Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)
    • Definition: Group of diseases that cause airway blockage.
  • Atelectasis
    • Definition: Collapsed lung caused by loss of alveolar elasticity.
  • Sleep Apnea
    • Definition: Apnea occurring during sleep which causes a strain on the cardiovascular system.

Chapter 18: Anatomy

Digestive System Components

  • Esophagus
    • Definition: Food tube connecting pharynx to stomach.
  • Cardiac Sphincter
    • Definition: Muscular structure regulating food entering stomach from esophagus.
  • Pyloric Sphincter
    • Definition: Muscular structure regulating food entering duodenum from stomach.
  • Duodenum
    • Definition: First 12-inch section of the small intestine.
  • Enzymes
    • Definition: Protein substances that break down food products.
    • Types:
    • Amylase
      • Function: Breaks down carbohydrates/sugars.
    • Lipase
      • Function: Breaks down fats/lipids.
    • Trypsin
      • Function: Breaks down proteins/amino acids.
  • Liver
    • Functions: Produces bile and proteins; detoxifies blood; largest organ within the body.
  • Pancreas
    • Definition: Both endocrine and exocrine gland; produces amylase and lipase.
  • Gallbladder
    • Definition: Sac that stores bile and secretes it into the small intestine.
    • Bile
    • Definition: Physically breaks down fats.

Terms

  • Cellulose
    • Definition: Indigestible dietary fiber found in fruits and vegetables that contributes to the bulk of feces.
  • Metabolism
    • Definition: Breakdown of foods into products that can be used by the body; regulated by thyroid gland.

Diseases/Disorders/Abnormal Conditions

  • Enteritis
    • Definition: Inflammation of the small intestine caused by bacteria or virus.
  • Colitis
    • Definition: Inflammation of the large intestine.
  • Gastritis
    • Definition: Inflammation of the stomach.
  • Appendicitis
    • Definition: Inflammation of the appendix.
  • Hepatitis
    • Definition: Inflammation of the liver.
  • Diverticulosis
    • Definition: A condition in which small pouches develop in the colon.
  • Cirrhosis
    • Definition: Chronic, progressive inflammatory disease that permanently damages the liver; replaces normal liver tissue with connective tissue.
  • Ulcer
    • Definition: Erosive sore in the mucosal lining generally affecting the stomach and duodenum.
  • Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD)
    • Definition: Stomach contents regurgitate (move) into the esophagus.
  • Hiatal Hernia
    • Definition: Protrusion of stomach above the diaphragm.
  • Inflammatory Bowel Disease
    • Definition: Inflammatory disease of large intestine causing chronic diarrhea.

Chapter 20: Anatomy

Urinary System Components

  • Kidney
    • Definition: Organ used to filter blood and excrete waste and excess water.
  • Bowman’s Capsule
    • Definition: Contains the glomerulus.
  • Glomerulus
    • Definition: Group of capillaries where waste products are filtered from the blood.
  • Renal Pelvis
    • Definition: Funnel-shaped structure in the kidney that drains into the ureter.
  • Ureter
    • Definition: Muscular tube that extends from the renal pelvis in the kidney to the bladder.
  • Urethra
    • Definition: Muscular tube that extends from the urinary bladder to the outside of the body.

Terms

  • Anuria
    • Definition: Lack of urine formation.
  • Pyuria
    • Definition: Pus in the urine.
  • Dysuria
    • Definition: Painful urination.
  • Nocturia
    • Definition: Urinating during the night.
  • Polyuria
    • Definition: Excessive production of urine and frequent need to urinate.
  • Oliguria
    • Definition: Diminished or scanty urine production.
  • Uremia
    • Definition: Retention of urinary waste products in the blood.
  • Incontinence
    • Definition: Loss of urinary control.
  • Urgency
    • Definition: The sensation of having to urinate immediately.
  • Filtrate
    • Definition: Substances filtered out of blood in glomerulus; caused by an increase in blood pressure.

Diseases/Disorders/Abnormal Conditions

  • Kidney Transplant
    • Definition: Replacing a non-functioning kidney with a donor; most common cause of transplant failure is rejection of donor kidney by the recipient.
  • Chronic Renal Failure
    • Definition: Gradual loss of nephron function in one or both kidneys.
  • Dialysis
    • Definition: Treatment for kidney failure through filtering blood through a different process.
    • Types:
      • Hemodialysis
      • Definition: Filtering blood through an external machine.
      • Peritoneal Dialysis
      • Definition: Filtering blood in the peritoneum using an infused dialysate.
  • Percutaneous Nephrolithotomy
    • Definition: Removing kidney stones by going through the skin into the kidney.
  • Cystitis
    • Definition: Inflammation of the lining of the urinary bladder.
  • Hydronephrosis
    • Definition: Accumulation of fluid in the kidney.
  • Pyelonephritis
    • Definition: Inflammation of the kidney and the renal pelvis.
  • Renal Calculi
    • Definition: Kidney stones.

Miscellaneous

Urine Production Process

  • Steps:
    • Filtration
    • Filters waste from blood; occurs in the glomerulus.
    • Reabsorption
    • Reabsorbs water and electrolytes back into blood; occurs in renal tubules:
      • Proximal Convoluted Tubule
      • Loop of Henle
      • Distal Convoluted Tubule
    • Excretion
    • Excretes ions, waste, drugs, etc., into collecting ducts.

Chapter 21: Anatomy

Reproductive System Components

  • Chromosomes
    • Definition: Structures found in the nucleus of cells which carry genetic information known as genes; human somatic cells have 46 chromosomes (or 23 pairs).
  • Testosterone
    • Definition: Male sex hormone.
  • Estrogen and Progesterone
    • Definition: Female sex hormones.
  • Endometrium
    • Definition: Inner lining of the uterus.
  • Myometrium
    • Definition: Middle (muscle) layer of the uterus.
  • Prostate Gland
    • Definition: A male reproductive gland that produces fluid; contracts during ejaculation to close off urethra and prevent the passage of urine.
  • Vas Deferens (Ductus Deferens)
    • Definition: Tubes carrying sperm from testes to prostate for ejaculation.
  • Seminiferous Tubules
    • Definition: Tiny tubes within the testes which create spermatozoa.
  • Ejaculatory Ducts
    • Definition: Joins vas deferens with prostate, picks up prostatic fluid to mix with semen.

Terms

  • Amenorrhea
    • Definition: Absence of menstrual period.
  • Dysmenorrhea
    • Definition: Painful menstrual periods.
  • Menorrhagia
    • Definition: Excessive or prolonged menstrual bleeding.
  • Zygote
    • Definition: A fertilized ovum.
  • Ejaculation
    • Definition: The process of expelling semen outside the male body through the urethra.

Diseases/Disorders/Abnormal Conditions

  • Premenstrual Syndrome
    • Definition: A group of symptoms sometimes exhibited prior to the menstrual cycle.
  • Endometriosis
    • Definition: Endometrial tissue growing outside of the uterus.
  • Ectopic Pregnancy
    • Definition: Pregnancy occurring outside of the uterus.
  • In Vitro Fertilization
    • Definition: Ovum fertilized outside the female body and transferred to uterus.
  • Artificial Insemination
    • Definition: Physician injects sperm directly into a woman’s cervix.
  • Toxic Shock Syndrome
    • Definition: Potentially life-threatening infection caused by staphylococcus bacteria.
  • Trichomoniasis
    • Definition: Protozoan infection causing itching and burning in the vagina for females, or burning in urethra for males.

Miscellaneous

Menstrual Cycle Stages

  • Menstrual Phase
    • Definition: Endometrial lining of the uterus sheds producing the menstrual period.
  • Follicular Phase
    • Definition: FSH from the pituitary matures follicles to produce a mature ovum.
  • Ovulation Phase
    • Definition: Ovary releases a mature egg.
  • Luteal Phase
    • Definition: Corpus luteum produces hormone to build the uterine wall preparing for pregnancy.