Mauss: Techniques of the Body — Notes (Overview of Chapters 1–4)
Chapter One: The Notion of Techniques of the Body
Mauss introduces the term techniques of the body in the plural to study how different societies know how to use their bodies. He emphasizes moving from concrete observations to abstract theory.
He distinguishes between a plural notion (techniques of the body) and a hypothetical single technique of the body; the plural captures the variety across societies.
The aim is to explain the concrete ways people perform bodily activities and to situate these within social life, education, and tradition.
He frames this work as part of his descriptive ethnology course, noting that advances in natural science proceed from concrete realms toward the unknown frontier and that the current frontier in social science lies in loosely demarcated domains marked by the rubric “miscellaneous.”
The term miscellaneous represents a frontier where there are many facts that are ignored or undervalued; Mauss argues that truths lie there because we know we are ignorant and because the facts are numerous.
He recounts a personal intellectual journey begun in 1898 when he encountered an article on “Swimming” for the 1902 Britannica edition, which highlighted historical and ethnographic questions and served as an observational framework.
He observes that swimming techniques have changed within his lifetime and uses examples to illustrate social and technical changes in bodily practices.
Example: changes in swimming/ diving training and education—earlier training focused on closing eyes while diving; in modern practice, the initial training emphasizes opening eyes underwater and gradually building fear control, confidence, and motion control.
He notes that there is a dialectic between a technique of diving and a broader technique of education in diving; both require apprenticeship and a “gymnic art.”
An example of social specificity of techniques: the technique of digging differed between English troops and French divisions during World War I, forcing changes in equipment (e.g., spades) and showing that manual “knack” is learned slowly and is specific to each group.
He uses the observation of army movements to illustrate that every technique has its own form and that attitudes of the body are not merely individual but are social and habitual.
He provides an extended anecdote about marching: the Worcester Regiment’s experience with French marching rhythm and bugle calls—an English gait set to French rhythm, leading to miscoordination and the withdrawal of French buglers.
He cites Prince Curt Sachs’ observations about the ability to recognize a specific gait (English vs. French) from a distance, illustrating the social and national character of bodily techniques.
He describes a hospital revelation about walking: the gait of young Parisian girls influenced by cinema and American fashion, suggesting that postures of arms and hands convey social identity and training (e.g., a convent upbringing may yield specific postural traits).
He argues that there exist polite and impolite positions for the hands at rest (e.g., elbow position at table signaling national or social identity).
He notes changes in running technique across generations (training from a “fist to the chest” in the past to different modern forms) and uses this to illustrate the social nature of habitus.
He introduces the Latin term habitus (often translated as habit) to designate acquired bodily dispositions that vary by society, education, proprieties, fashions, and prestige; habitus is the product of collective and individual practical reasoning rather than mere innate faculties.
He foregrounds a triple viewpoint needed to understand bodily techniques: mechanical/physical, anatomical/physiological, and psychological/sociological; this is what he calls the total man perspective.
He emphasizes that education and imitation are central: children imitate actions that have succeeded and been performed by authoritative figures, and the imitation carries psychological and biological elements.
He notes that techniques of the body and rites (magico-religious actions) are distinct in emphasis: techniques are “effective and traditional” actions with mechanical/physical aims, while rites involve symbolic or magical elements; the two can be fused in practice for the actor, but conceptually they are differentiated.
He argues that transmission is key: technique is transmitted, usually orally, and this is a key feature that distinguishes humans from animals.
He concludes that focusing on the techniques of the body moves the miscellaneous category into a structured domain where the body becomes the central technical object and instrument of society.
Chapter Two: Principles of the Classification of Techniques of the Body
Two immediate observations about techniques of the body: they are divided by sex and by age.
1. Sexual division of techniques of the body (not merely a division of labor):
Cites observations on body-object relationships in primates (Mearns Yerkes and Kohler) as inspiration for a broader discussion of how sexes move relative to objects and space.
Notes classical human observations of sexed bodily practice and suggests supplementing with physiology and sociology.
Example: fist closure—men typically place the thumb outside the fist, women inside; this may reflect training, but may also involve biological or psychological factors.
Observes differences in throwing orientation (vertical vs. horizontal plane) and posits a broader “society of men” vs. “society of women.”
2. Variations of techniques of the body with age:
Children tend to squat; Mauss laments that modern western societies have largely abandoned squatting, which Australians still retain when resting in mud or water.
Suggests that squatting is associated with a form of immunity to certain actions and argues that such postures have physiological, psychological, and sociological roots.
Notes a historical physiological interpretation (e.g., Neanderthal vs. modern posture) and argues that many apparent hereditary traits may be the results of posture and use rather than genetics alone.
3. Classification of techniques of the body according to efficiency:
Techniques can be ranked by efficiency or effectiveness, as one would rank training outcomes in machinery—this yields a human norm of training and dexterity.
Introduces the term dexterity and discusses its Latin origin: habilis (skillfully adapted). In French, the term habile designates well-coordinated and goal-oriented movement; English terms like craft/cleverness reflect this technical domain.
4. Transmission of the form of the techniques:
Emphasizes that the teaching and training of techniques form a new field: a pedagogy of physical education across ages and sexes.
Highlights details often overlooked, such as bilateral dexterity (arnbi-dextrousness) and cross-cultural patterns in right-hand vs left-hand usage (e.g., pious Muslims prefer the right hand for eating, avoiding the left hand and certain gestures).
Argues that to understand these practices one must know not only physiology/psychology but also the traditions that impose these practices.
Definition and scope of technique (as conceptual anchor):
A technique is an action that is effective and traditional; there can be transmission of technique through tradition.
The body is man’s first and most natural instrument; this expands the scope beyond “instruments” to include the body as a technical object and means.
All methods of action can be categorized as techniques of the body; this broadens the descriptive sociology category of ‘miscellaneous’ into a concrete system.
Summary: There exist both physical/mechanical and social/educational elements to bodily techniques, and they are transmitted through tradition and education; the body serves as the primary technology of humans, differentiating us from animals.
Chapter Three: A Biographical List of the Techniques of the Body
This chapter provides a practical listing of bodily techniques following life stages (birth to old age).
I. Techniques of birth and obstetrics:
Notes that classical information is disputed; references Walter Roth’s work on Australian tribes and Guiana; obstetric forms vary widely.
Intriguing examples: Buddha’s birth standing up; Indian births commonly performed standing; the Western practice of lying on the back is not universal.
Raises questions of birth-related practices: choosing the child, exposure of weaklings, killing of twins; recognition of the child as a decisive historical moment.
II. Techniques of Infancy (rearing and feeding the child):
Focus on mother-child interactions: suckling, carrying, and other contact; carrying positions (neck, shoulder, hip) affect early bonding and later physical/psychological development.
Suckling duration and weaning: typically two to three years; weaning timing relates to reproduction dynamics; the practice of suckling animals in some cultures exists.
Carrying practices: cradle use is geographically variable; in cradle-using cultures, cranial deformation may accompany the practice.
The weaned child learns walking, vision, rhythm, movement, dancing and music, and training in physical exercise and breathing.
III. Techniques of adolescence:
Emphasizes that initiation and puberty mark major educational moments for both sexes, though the emphasis differs by gender in many societies.
In many so-called primitive societies, male education intensifies around puberty; female education remains traditional, often led by mothers with few formal schools.
For both sexes, adolescence is the decisive moment when body techniques are definitively learned and retained into adulthood.
IV. Techniques of adult life:
Sleeping techniques: sleep is not entirely natural and is highly variable across cultures; examples include sleeping on floors, benches, or standing up; some cultures lie very close to fires or sleep in hammocks or hanging positions.
Waking/rest: rest can be full rest or suspension of activity; differences include squatting, sitting, using benches or chairs, and variations in table use across cultures; Nilotic Africa and parts of Chad rest in fields, sometimes on one foot or with a stick.
Techniques of activity (movement): includes walking (habitus of upright posture, rhythm, arm swing, trunk lead), running (foot and arm positions, breathing, endurance), and the about-turn; emphasizes that posture and gait are culturally encoded (e.g., German “goose-step” vs. French/run-specific styles).
Dancing: cited as a key form of active rest and bodily expression;Curt Sachs’ classification into close vs. expanded dances is discussed; the Polynesian/Maori patterns show significant variety; men’s dancing vs. women’s dancing is often distinct; partner dancing is a recent European development.
Pumping and jumping: jumping techniques (from springboards, modern variations); standing vs. side jumps; pole vaults; climbing (tree-belt technique used by some “primitive” groups); descent (e.g., Kabyle wearing Turkish slippers); swimming (diving, use of supplementary means like floats, boards, or natural swimming aids); the invention of navigation through swimming techniques.
Forceful movements: pushing, pulling, lifting; the back-heave as a canonical example; throwing and the technique of holding an object between fingers.
Handling and grip: holding between teeth or using toes/armpits as grips; the development of mechanical “pairs of elements” (following Reuleaux’s kinematic ideas) and their relevance to juggling, gymnastic feats, and acrobatics.
4. Techniques of care for the body:
Hygiene practices: rubbing, washing, and soap; historical notes on soap’s invention and water-based cleansing; cross-cultural uses of local materials (e.g., quiZzaia bark, “brazil”).
Oral hygiene and mouth care; coughing and spitting techniques; a humorous anecdote about teaching a girl to spit to improve her health and a family’s reaction to such training.
5. Consumption techniques (eating and drinking):
Etiquette and tool use: stories about the Shah of Persia preferring fingers vs. a golden fork; cross-cultural practice around knives and eating implements; misconceptions like Seri Indians lacking knives are contested.
Drinking and swallowing: drinking straight from sources, avoiding waste, and the technique of swallowing; instructions to teach children to drink directly to improve efficiency and hydration.
6. Techniques of Reproduction (sexual techniques):
Focus on sexual positions and acts as technically complex, with social and moral components; Krauss’s Anthropophyteia collection is cited for sexual techniques across the Pacific and other regions.
Notes the variety and rarity of certain positions, including a specific Pacific technique where the woman’s legs hang from the man’s elbows; mentions the link between sexual techniques and social norms.
7. Techniques of care of the abnormal (therapeutic/massage, etc.):
Mentions the care for abnormal conditions and broader health-related practices.
Chapter Four: General Considerations
The techniques of the body form physio-psycho-sociological assemblages: sequences of actions that are habitual and ancient in both individual and social histories.
Explains that these actions are often organized and enforced by social authority (e.g., military drill and close-order marching); education of movements is a group process that yields social cohesion and competence.
Acknowledges the presence of mistakes and stupidity in social life, but maintains that example and social order are powerful determinants of bodily technique.
Argues that movement is tightly connected to both biology and physiology; highlighting the integration of psychological factors and social conditioning (cogs in a system).
Presents two major questions for psychology: (i) individual capacities and technical orientation; (ii) salient bio-typology; suggests psychotechnics and holistic approaches are where advances occur.
Argues for a biologico-sociological understanding of technique: education and social conditions shape bodily capacity and discipline, including the ability to endure difficult situations (stoicism, initiation, composure).
Personal anecdote: mountaineering fostered composure and the ability to sleep upright on narrow ledges, illustrating the practical utility of bodily education.
Proposes that the education of races around efficiency—i.e., teaching body control to achieve a particular social goal—has been a fundamental historical force (education of vision, walking, climbing, running).
Argues that composure acts as a retardation mechanism that prevents disorderly movements, enabling coordinated responses toward a chosen goal.
Suggests that social control and the intervention of consciousness shape bodily techniques; education and social norms condition behavior more than unconscious impulse.
Observes that the Navy’s decision to require swimming training reflects the social value placed on bodily competence and safety in modern institutions.
Extends the discussion to philosophical issues: Taoism, Yoga, breath techniques, and mysticism, noting that many mystical states may be related to bodily techniques studied in other cultures (China, India).
Proposes a cross-cultural research program in reflex therapy and related bodily techniques that would benefit sociology, biology, and psychology.
Ends with a note about translation and cross-cultural significance of these techniques for understanding human behavior and social life.
Notes
[1] The 1902 Britannica swimming article is linked through Sydney Holland; Mauss cites its enduring value and notes later editions are less strong.
[2] Elsdon Best’s Maori gait (onioni) and the drill by mothers teaching gait; Maori gait described as a deliberate social acquisition rather than a natural imitation.
[3] Australian ritual formulas used in hunting and running (various strikes with symbolic objects and fluids) showing the link between magical procedures and hunting technique.
[4] Hertz’s work on right-handed dominance.
[5] Ploss and related work on gender and bodily practices.
[6] Roth’s ethnographic studies on arts and crafts of indigenous groups (North-West Central Queensland, Guiana).
[7] Observations on how hand and foot use relate to gender and socialization.
[8] Krauss’s Anthropophyteia and related textual references for cross-cultural sexual practices.
[9] Rattray’s Ashanti work and related figures on dance and bodily technique.
[10] Sachs’s work on dance (1933, 1938) and his distinction between close vs. expanded dances; introduction of extravert vs. introvert dances.
[11] Sachs’s classification and notes on dance in various cultures.
[12] The interplay between performance and social expectations in dance.
[13] Observations on the use of partner dancing as a result of modern European influence.
[14] A note on the recent adoption of certain mechanical teaching methods in 1935.
[15] Rattray’s figures and visual material on Ashanti dance and technique.
[16] Reuleaux’s theory of the “pairs of elements” in machinery used as a heuristic for human movement.
[17] McGee’s Seri Indians discussion clarifies geographic misplacements in earlier ethnographic descriptions.
[18] Krauss’s Anthropophyteia and related volumes.
[19] Granet’s work on Taoist breathing techniques and related Indian/Sanskrit yogic traditions; Mauss points to cross-cultural parallels in physiology and mysticism.
References
Best, Elsdon (1924). The Maori. Memoirs of the Polynesian Society, Volume V.
Eyre, Edward John (1845). Journals of Expeditions of Discovery into Central Australia and Overland from Adelaide to King George's Sound.
Graebner, Fritz (1923). Ethnologie, in Die Kultur der Gegenwart (Part III, Sec. 5).
Granet, Marcel (1929, 1930). La civilisation chinoise; Chinese Civilization.
Hertz, Robert (1929, 1960). La pré-eminence de la main droite; The Pre-Eminence of the Right Hand.
Holland, Sydney (1902-3). Swimming, Encyclopaedia Britannica (Supplement to the 9th edition).
Krauss, Friedrich Salomon (1904-13, 1906-7, 1909-29). Anthropophyteia; Historische Quellen…
McGee, W. J. (1898). The Seri Indians. Seventeenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology.
Rattray, Robert Sutherland (1923). Ashanti. Clarendon Press.
Reuleaux, Franz (1875, 1876). Theoretische Kinematik; The Kinematics of Machinery.
Roth, Walter Edmund (1897, 1924). Ethnological Studies among the North-West-Central Queensland Aborigines; An Introductory Study of the Arts, Crafts, and Customs of the Guiana Indians.
Sachs, Curt (1933, 1938). Weltgeschichte des Tanzes; World History of the Dance.
Teichelmann, Christian Gottlieb; Schürmann, Clamor Wilhelm (1840-41). Outlines of a Grammar, Vocabulary, and Phraseology of the Aboriginal Language of South Australia.
Best, Elsdon (1924). The Maori, Memoirs of the Polynesian Society.
Additional notes and translations accompanying Mauss’s lecture are included in the working edition of Socio-Anthropologie writings.
Chapter One: The Notion of Techniques of the Body
Definition: Mauss introduces "techniques of the body" as culturally specific ways societies use their bodies, moving from concrete observation to abstract theory.
Key Elements: These techniques are rooted in social life, education, and tradition, and vary widely across societies.
Habitus: The Latin term
habitusdenotes acquired bodily dispositions (affected by society, education, fashion, prestige) that result from collective and individual practical reasoning.Triple Viewpoint (Total Man): Understanding requires mechanical/physical, anatomical/physiological, and psychological/sociological perspectives.
Transmission: Techniques are effective, traditional actions, usually transmitted orally, distinguishing humans from animals. They are distinct from rites.
Chapter Two: Principles of the Classification of Techniques of the Body
Classifications: Techniques are primarily divided by sex and by age.
Sexual Division: Differences in body-object relationships and practices (e.g., fist closure, throwing orientation).
Age Variations: Changes from infancy (e.g., squatting) to old age; many apparent hereditary traits are results of posture and use.
Efficiency: Techniques can be ranked by efficiency and dexterity (from Latin
habilis, skillfully adapted).Pedagogy: Teaching and training techniques form a "pedagogy of physical education," highlighting the role of tradition and cultural norms (e.g., right-hand preference).
Core Definition: A technique is an effective and traditional action, transmitted through tradition. The body is humanity's first and most natural instrument, serving as a central technical object.
Chapter Three: A Biographical List of the Techniques of the Body
Life Stages: Techniques are categorized from birth to old age:
Birth & Obstetrics: Varied forms (e.g., standing vs. lying births).
Infancy (Rearing & Feeding): Suckling, carrying positions (neck, shoulder, hip), weaning, early learning (walking, vision, rhythm).
Adolescence: Initiation and puberty are crucial for definitive learning of body techniques, especially for males.
Adult Life:
Sleeping: Culturally variable positions (floor, standing, hammocks).
Waking/Rest: Squatting, sitting, chair/bench use.
Activity (Movement): Walking (gait, rhythm), running, about-turns, dancing (cultural variations, partner dancing), jumping, climbing, swimming, forceful movements (pushing, pulling, lifting), handling/grip (using teeth, toes).
Care for the Body: Hygiene (washing, soap, oral care), coughing, spitting.
Consumption: Eating and drinking etiquette, tool use, swallowing techniques.
Reproduction (Sexual Techniques): Socially and morally complex, varying positions and acts.
Care of the Abnormal: Therapeutic and health-related practices.
Chapter Four: General Considerations
Nature of Techniques: They are physio-psycho-sociological assemblages, habitual, and ancient.
Social Control: Actions are often organized and enforced by social authority (e.g., military drill), fostering social cohesion.
Integrated Understanding: Movement integrates biology, physiology, psychological factors, and social conditioning.
Biologico-Sociological View: Education and social conditions shape bodily capacity and discipline, including endurance and composure.
Composure: Acts as a learned retardation mechanism, preventing disorderly movements and enabling coordinated, goal-oriented responses.
Cross-Cultural Significance: Bodily techniques connect to philosophical practices (Taoism, Yoga) and offer a fertile ground for cross-cultural research in understanding human behavior and social life.
In essence, Mauss's "techniques of the body" are the specific, learned ways people use and move their bodies, which are shaped by culture, education, and social norms. These actions, from how we walk to how we eat, aren't just natural but are taught and reflect our social identity. He argues that the body is our first and most fundamental tool, and understanding these techniques helps us grasp how societies function and transmit knowledge.