Definitive Study Guide: Report Writing in Law Enforcement (6th Edition)

Overview of Reports and Report Writing

• Definition of a Report:

  • A report is a permanent written record that communicates important facts to be used in the future.
  • It serves as an official stockpile of information drawn upon by officers, supervisors, administrators, courts, attorneys, juries, city officials, reporters, and citizens.
  • Reports are not merely filed away; they directly govern the efficiency, legal standing, and professional reputation of a law enforcement agency.

• Classification of Law Enforcement Reports:

  • Administrative Reports:
  • Deal with the routine functioning of the law enforcement agency or department.
  • Examples: Internal procedures, proper uniform policies, grievance filings, personal leave requests, retirement benefits, and training opportunities.
  • Operational Reports:
  • Deal directly with the operational activities and official actions of law enforcement officers in the field.
  • Five Primary Types of Operational Reports:
    1. Incident / Miscellaneous Service Reports
    2. Crime Reports
    3. Arrest Reports
    4. Crash Reports (Traffic Accident Reports)
    5. Supplemental Progress Reports / Follow-Up Reports

• Primary Uses of Operational Reports:

  • Examining past events and maintaining a permanent record of all facts.
  • Keeping police officers and administrative staff informed.
  • Continuing ongoing criminal investigations and establishing modus operandi ($\text{M.O.}$).
  • Preparing court cases for prosecution and refreshing investigating officers' memories during trial testimony.
  • Providing courts, judges, and juries with impartial, relevant facts.
  • Coordinating law enforcement activities across agencies and departments.
  • Planning future law enforcement resource allocations and identifying dangerous locations (e.g., high-accident intersections).
  • Evaluating individual officer performance and thoroughness.
  • Serving as the basis for plea bargaining; defendants faced with well-documented reports often plead guilty to avoid trial ("trial by police report").

• Audience Analysis:

  • Readers include fellow officers, supervisors, prosecuting attorneys, defense attorneys, judges, jurors, city officials, journalists, and public citizens.
  • Most readers possess at least a high school education, meaning language does not need to be oversimplified, but it must communicate facts clearly so a reader who was not at the scene can accurately visualize what occurred.

• Reader-Friendly Principles:

  • Write in plain, direct English as it would be naturally spoken.
  • Avoid police jargon, bureaucratic legalism ("legalese"), and non-standard abbreviations.
  • Express facts rather than attempting to impress the reader; overly complex language may suggest the writer is hiding details.
  • Avoid referring the reader "above" (e.g., writing "the above-named defendant" or "on the above date"). If information is essential to the narrative flow, repeat the specific name, date, or detail explicitly.

• Common Pitfalls in Police Reports:

  • Unclear, convoluted, or fragmented sentence structures.
  • Insertion of unsubstantiated conclusions, assumptions, or personal opinions.
  • Extreme wordiness, unnecessary repetition, and excessive jargon.
  • Incomplete details or missing key investigative elements.
  • Spelling mistakes, grammatical errors, and mechanical defects.
  • Cross-referencing missing narrative facts to "above" section boxes.

• Impact of Well-Written Reports:

  • Saves agency time and financial resources in typing, filing, reviewing, and court appearances.
  • Prevents case dismissals resulting from incomplete or ambiguous officer statements.
  • Case Study: An officer wrote in the passive voice, "The weapon was found in the bushes where the suspect had thrown it." The preliminary hearing revealed the reporting officer's partner actually witnessed the disposal and retrieved the weapon. Because the partner was unavailable on short notice, essential crime elements could not be established; the case was dismissed and required refiling, wasting judge, clerk, attorney, and witness time.
  • Protects officers and departments against excessive force and civil rights litigation by establishing prudent, lawful conduct.
  • Preserves criminal prosecution integrity; poor report writing jeopardizes felony prosecutions (e.g., a San Francisco study revealed $55\,000$ annual felony arrests resulted in only $2\,000$ prosecutions due in part to inadequate police documentation).

Characteristics of Content in Well-Written Reports

• Content vs. Form:

  • Content: What is said (facts, specifics, elements, objectivity, completeness).
  • Form: How it is written (conciseness, clarity, mechanics, grammar, standard English, legibility).
  • Both content and form are of equal importance; high-quality form cannot compensate for missing facts, and thorough content is rendered useless if mechanical errors obscure meaning.

• Factual Content:

  • A Fact is a statement that can be proven (e.g., "The car was traveling $20\,\text{m.p.h.}$ and crossed the center line twice").
  • An Inference is a conclusion derived from reasoning or factual observation (e.g., "The driver was drunk"). Inferences must be backed by concrete facts (such as slurred speech, odor of alcoholic beverage, blood alcohol concentration over $0.08$) and explicitly labeled using qualifiers like "apparently."
  • An Opinion is a personal belief or preference that cannot be proven (e.g., "Drunken drivers deserve harsh punishment"). Opinions have no place in law enforcement reports.
  • Distinction Example: Reporting that a vehicle was traveling $20\,\text{m.p.h.}$ and weaving across the center line is factual. Reporting that the driver was drunk is an inference—if the driver was actually experiencing a diabetic reaction or heart attack, acting solely on the unlabeled inference creates legal liability.

• Conclusionary Language:

  • Conclusionary words substitute an officer's subjective interpretation for actual observed behavior or spoken words.
  • Case Study (Sanchez Trial): An officer reported that the defendant "repeatedly refused" a chemical test. In court, Sanchez used an interpreter, claiming he understood no English. Because the officer could not recall the exact words used, the jury acquitted the defendant. Had the report quoted Sanchez directly ("Screw you, cop… I ain't taking no test"), the prosecution would have prevailed.
  • Substitutes for Conclusionary Terms:
  • Instead of refused, admitted, confessed, or denied $\rightarrow$ Use verbatim or approximate direct quotes.
  • Instead of assaulted, attacked, struggle ensued, or resisted $\rightarrow$ Provide a factual account of who moved, struck, or grabbed whom.
  • Instead of angry, upset, nervous, or belligerent $\rightarrow$ Describe physical actions, tone of voice, facial expressions, and specific words spoken.
  • Instead of saw, heard, knew, or thought $\rightarrow$ Identify the source of information or factual observations.
  • Instead of suspicious, furtive, or abnormal $\rightarrow$ Record the exact physical actions and movements observed.

• Accurate and Specific Content:

  • Accuracy demands precision regarding times, dates, names, spellings, phone numbers, addresses, license plates, measurements, and descriptions.
  • Always request that individuals spell their names; repeat digits and spellings back to confirm accuracy.
  • Replace vague terms with precise values:
  • Replace "fast" $\rightarrow$ Write "in excess of $90\,\text{m.p.h.}$"
  • Replace "tall" $\rightarrow$ Write "approximately $6'\,6"$"
  • Replace "several beers" $\rightarrow$ Write "six Miller Genuine Drafts"
  • Replace "medium build" $\rightarrow$ Write "between $150\text{--}160\,\text{lbs.}$"
  • Replace "old car" $\rightarrow$ Write "green $1972$ Ford"
  • Avoid imprecise words: a few, many, several, frequently, often, contacted (specify if called, visited in person, or wrote).

• Objective Content:

  • Objective reports are non-opinionated, fair, impartial, and present all relevant evidence regardless of whether it supports or undermines the officer's initial hypothesis.
  • Denotative vs. Connotative Words:
  • Denotative: Objective, neutral meaning without emotional overtones (e.g., cried, police officer, woman, custodian).
  • Connotative: Subjective meaning carrying positive or negative emotional overtones (e.g., blubbered, pig, broad, broompusher, snitch, plastered).
  • Slanting: The practice of selecting only facts that favor one side of an issue. Objective reporting records both sides of a dispute and all physical evidence.
  • Comparison Example (.45-caliber handgun):
  • Slanted (Positive): "The finest weapon ever designed, completely dependable with versatile ammunition."
  • Slanted (Negative): "Kicks so hard your arm feels broken and feels like it weighs a ton."
  • Objective: "A gas-operated semiautomatic weapon firing .45-caliber ammunition, weighing $140\text{--}220\,\text{g}$, with a 7-shot clip capacity."

• Complete Content:

  • A complete report answers six fundamental questions: Who? What? Where? When? How? Why?
  • When: Incident occurred, discovered, reported, police arrived, arrest made, court appearance scheduled.
  • Where: Incident location, discovery location, physical evidence found, suspect located, property recovered.
  • Who: Victims, complainants, witnesses, suspects, callers, assisting officers, evidence technicians.
  • What: Type of offense/incident, physical actions taken, statements made, evidence gathered, property stolen/damaged, disposition.
  • How: Method of entry, tools or weapons used, vehicle involved, trickery or force utilized.
  • Why: Motive (e.g., financial gain, revenge, jealousy, drug addiction).

• Elements of the Crime:

  • An act is not a crime unless it meets specific statutory conditions known as the elements of the crime.
  • A criminal report must document facts proving every element of the specific offense charged.
  • Murder: Killing of one human being by another with malice aforethought.
  • First Degree: Deliberate, willful, preformed intent; lying in wait; or during commission of an inherently dangerous felony (arson, rape, robbery, sodomy, burglary, mayhem).
  • Second Degree: All other intentional murders lacking premeditation.
  • Voluntary Manslaughter: Intentional killing committed in the sudden "heat of passion."
  • Involuntary Manslaughter: Unintentional killing during an unlawful act less than a felony, or during a lawful act executed in an unlawful manner.
  • Rape: Unlawful carnal knowledge (sexual intercourse) of a person by force and against their will.
  • Robbery: Felonious taking of personal property from the person or immediate presence of another against their will, accomplished by force or fear.
  • Burglary: Breaking and entering of the dwelling house of another in the nighttime (jurisdictions vary) with intent to commit a crime therein.
  • Larceny or Theft: Felonious taking by trespass of the personal property of another with intent to permanently deprive the owner of its possession.
  • Arson: Willful and malicious burning of the dwelling (or real property/lands) of another.
  • Assault: Unlawful attempt, coupled with present ability, to commit a violent injury upon the person of another.

• Arrest Reports & Probable Cause:

  • Probable cause requires reasonable cause to believe a crime occurred and that the arrestee committed it.
  • Arrest reports must detail step-by-step observations, actions, and constitutional safeguards (e.g., Miranda advisements and waivers).

Characteristics of Form in Well-Written Reports

• Six Form Requirements:

  • Concise, Clear, Mechanically Correct, Standard English, Legible, On Time.

• Conciseness:

  • Express all necessary facts in as few words as possible without omitting critical details or structural words ($\text{a}$, $\text{an}$, $\text{the}$).
  • Eliminate redundancies (e.g., replace "blue in color" with "blue"; replace "square in shape" with "square"; replace "at a later date" with "later").
  • Difference between Brief and Concise:
  • Brief (Incomplete): "He drove a car."
  • Wordy: "He drove a car which was a 1988 Ford and was blue in color."
  • Concise: "He drove a 1988 blue Ford."

• Clarity:

  • Ensure the text has only one logical interpretation.
  • Use specific, concrete facts rather than generalities.
  • Position modifiers directly adjacent to the words they modify.
  • Include scaled diagrams or freehand sketches for complex crime or crash scenes.
  • Avoid uncommon, department-specific, or ambiguous abbreviations.
  • Construct short sentences and organize them into concise paragraphs ($5\text{--}10$ sentences or under $100$ words) organized in chronological order.

• Mechanical Correctness:

  • Strictly adhere to standard rules of spelling, capitalization, and punctuation.
  • Errors distract from the report's substance and create negative assumptions regarding the officer's competence, education, or attention to detail.

• Standard English:

  • Write using formal grammar rules rather than casual spoken dialects, colloquialisms, or slang.
  • Correct: "He doesn't," "He and I are partners," "I saw the incident."
  • Nonstandard: "He don't," "Him and me are partners," "I seen the incident."

• Legibility and Timeliness:

  • Reports must be legible (hand-printed neatly if typing is unavailable) and submitted within required department deadlines.
  • Late or illegible reports delay prosecution, hinder follow-up investigations, and reflect poorly on the agency.

Steps in Report Writing

• The Five Basic Steps (G.R.O.W.E.):

  1. Gather the facts (investigate, interview, interrogate).
  2. Record the facts immediately (take field notes).
  3. Organize the facts.
  4. Write the report.
  5. Evaluate the report (edit, proofread, revise).

• Step 1: Gathering the Facts:

  • Prepare questions in advance when time permits.
  • Interview subjects as soon after the incident as possible.
  • Allow upset victims time to calm down (high emotion decreases memory retention).
  • Build rapport, maintain eye contact, use private settings, eliminate physical barriers (avoid talking across desks or through patrol car windows), and sit rather than stand.
  • Keep officer talking to a minimum; ask simple, open-ended questions ("Tell me what you saw"); avoid yes/no questions; allow natural pauses for reflection.
  • Avoid law enforcement jargon during interviews.
  • Observe body language for signs of nervousness, anger, or fear.

• Step 2: Recording the Facts (Field Notes):

  • Record all facts legibly in ink inside a dedicated loose-leaf notebook (standard size $3\text{-}3/4" \times 6\text{-}3/4"$).
  • Maintain two operational pens; pencil smudges and can be altered.
  • Label every page with the officer's name, date, and case number.
  • Record facts immediately; verify spellings, phone numbers, and addresses aloud with the subject.
  • Use freehand sketches for spatial clarity.
  • Omit non-essential articles ($\text{a}$, $\text{an}$, $\text{the}$) in rough field notes, but use standard abbreviations.

• Step 3: Organizing the Information:

  • Organize field notebooks with index tabs for quick reference.
  • Construct a brief outline or number field notes in chronological sequence prior to writing.
  • Group facts into short, single-topic paragraphs.
  • Arrange event narratives in strict chronological order.
  • Use a standard introductory format stating time, date, location, type of call, and method of dispatch.

• Step 4: Structuring the Narrative:

  • Sequence of Investigative Events:
  1. Setting the Stage: Date, time, location, incident type, arrival time, and officer involvement.
  2. Information Received: Detailed statements from victim(s) or witness(es) (a separate paragraph for each individual).
  3. Officer Action Taken: Physical searches, evidence collection, processing, and suspect identification attempts.
  4. Additional Information / Follow-Up Action: Secondary leads, evidence booking, computer entries (e.g., NCIC broadcasts).
  5. Case Disposition: Final status (e.g., active, cleared by arrest, referred to detective division).
  • Describing Offenses: Use official penal code titles (e.g., Malicious Mischief, Arson, Burglary) or approved non-crime incident titles (e.g., Abandoned Vehicle, Animal Bite, Lost Person, Suicide).
  • Names and Titles:
  • Full name on first mention (e.g., Jerry J. Adams); last name only thereafter.
  • If two individuals share a last name, use first initial and last name (e.g., J. Adams).
  • Use personal pronouns ($\text{he}$, $\text{she}$) following the initial sentence of a paragraph.
  • Omit courtesy titles ($\text{Mr.}$, $\text{Mrs.}$, $\text{Ms.}$) unless department policy dictates; use specific professional degrees ($\text{MD}$, $\text{PhD}$) or official ranks ($\text{Sgt. McKinley}$).
  • Omitting Questions: Omit officer questions; format narrative statements as a continuous, coherent story.
  • Verb Tense: Write strictly in the past tense throughout the narrative. Present tense opens vulnerabilities during court cross-examination.

• Step 5: Evaluating the Report:

  • Editing: Review content for facts, accuracy, objectivity, completeness, and chronological sequence.
  • Proofreading: Review form for conciseness, clarity, mechanical correctness, standard English, and legibility.
  • Standard Proofreading Marks:
  • Delete: $\delta$
  • Add / Insert: $\wedge$
  • Leave as was: $\text{stet}$
  • Transpose: $\sim$
  • Lowercase: $/$
  • Capitalize: $\equiv$
  • Add space: $\#$
  • Close up space: $\smile$
  • Paragraph break: $\mathbf{\mathbb{P}}$
  • Maintain professional physical appearance: generous margins, clear line breaks between paragraphs, clean paper.

Principles of Clear Writing

• First Person Point of View:

  • Refer to yourself using first-person pronouns ($\text{I}$, $\text{me}$, $\text{my}$).
  • Avoid third-person self-references ("this officer," "this reporting officer," "the undersigned officer"). First-person writing is direct, concise, and clear.

• Active Voice vs. Passive Voice:

  • Active Voice: The subject performs the action (e.g., "Officer Jones found the weapon"). Active sentences are shorter, direct, and forceful.
  • Passive Voice: The subject receives the action (e.g., "The weapon was found by Officer Jones").
  • Acceptable Uses of Passive Voice:
  1. The doer of the action is unknown, unimportant, or obvious (e.g., "The gun had been fired three times"; "Felix Umburger was paroled in April").
  2. Calling primary attention to the receiver of the action (e.g., "Officer Morris was promoted").
  3. Avoiding unnecessary blame or embarrassment when the doer is secondary (e.g., "The wrong film was sent").

• Modifier Placement:

  • Modifiers must sit directly adjacent to the words they modify.
  • Misplaced Modifiers: Separated from the target word, causing confusion or absurd meanings.
  • Incorrect: "He gave the gun to his partner that he had bought for his friend."
  • Correct: "He gave the gun that he had bought for his friend to his partner."
  • Pay strict attention to limiting words: almost, just, merely, nearly, only (e.g., write "shot only one victim" rather than "only shot one victim").
  • Squinting Modifiers: Placed between two words, leaving it unclear which word is modified.
  • Incorrect: "The man who watched her steadily sipped his drink."
  • Correct: "The man who steadily watched her sipped his drink" OR "The man who watched her sipped his drink steadily."
  • Dangling Modifiers: A modifying phrase lacking a logical target noun in the sentence.
  • Incorrect: "Upon arrival, the complainant told me what happened." (The complainant did not arrive).
  • Correct: "Upon my arrival, the complainant told me what happened."
  • Incorrect: "Walking up the hill, two paths were found."
  • Correct: "Walking up the hill, we found two paths."

• Pronoun Reference:

  • A pronoun must refer unambiguously to a single, specific noun antecedent.
  • Incorrect: "I saw Joe talking to Fred today, and he looked angry."
  • Correct: "I saw Joe talking to Fred today, and Joe looked angry."
  • When ambiguity arises, repeat the proper noun rather than using a pronoun.

• Parallelism:

  • Express similar or joined ideas using matching grammatical structures.
  • Incorrect: "Officer White asked the witness' name, phone number and where he lived."
  • Correct: "Officer White asked the witness' name, phone number and address."
  • Incorrect: "The suspect was tall, with blond hair and a graceful manner."
  • Correct: "The suspect was tall, blond and graceful."

Choosing the Right Words

• Word Choice:

  • Use plain, simple English; eliminate esoteric legalisms, high-sounding technical jargon, and administrative filler.
  • Recrement Survey: When asked what "recrement of force" meant, only $2\%$ identified it. Plain English "too much" was understood by $100\%$.
  • Minimize overused police terms like stated and advised; use said.
  • Common Substitutions:
  • advised / stated $\rightarrow$ told / said
  • approximately $\rightarrow$ about
  • ascertained $\rightarrow$ determined / found out
  • commenced / initiated $\rightarrow$ started / began
  • contacted $\rightarrow$ called / talked to / met
  • demonstrated $\rightarrow$ showed
  • detected $\rightarrow$ saw / heard / smelled / felt
  • endeavored $\rightarrow$ tried
  • exited $\rightarrow$ left
  • inquired $\rightarrow$ asked
  • observed $\rightarrow$ saw
  • proceeded $\rightarrow$ went
  • render assistance $\rightarrow$ help
  • stationary mode $\rightarrow$ stopped
  • transported $\rightarrow$ took
  • utilized $\rightarrow$ used

• Tone:

  • Maintain a serious, objective, neutral tone.
  • Avoid informal slang, derogatory terms, or exaggerated expressions:
  • Replace blubbered $\rightarrow$ cried
  • Replace sweat bullets $\rightarrow$ perspire heavily
  • Replace rug rat $\rightarrow$ child
  • Replace slammer $\rightarrow$ jail
  • Replace snitch $\rightarrow$ informant
  • Replace piece $\rightarrow$ gun
  • Replace plastered / smashed $\rightarrow$ intoxicated
  • Exercise care with the word claimed (e.g., "The victim claimed…"), as it implies skepticism.

• Eliminating Redundancy and Wordiness:

  • Remove words that needlessly duplicate meaning:
  • Replace month of July $\rightarrow$ July
  • Replace important essentials $\rightarrow$ essentials
  • Replace green in color $\rightarrow$ green
  • Replace basic fundamentals $\rightarrow$ basics / fundamentals
  • Replace small in size $\rightarrow$ small
  • Replace state of California $\rightarrow$ California
  • Replace at a later date $\rightarrow$ later
  • Replace actual truth $\rightarrow$ truth
  • Replace refer back $\rightarrow$ refer
  • Replace short in length $\rightarrow$ short
  • Seven Rules for Conciseness:
  1. Eliminate redundant words and phrases.
  2. Use active voice verbs.
  3. Frame statements positively (e.g., "usually late" instead of "not very often on time").
  4. Combine related thoughts into single sentences.
  5. Avoid starting sentences with "There is" or "There are."
  6. Write with direct action verbs rather than nominalized nouns (e.g., "interviewed" instead of "conducted an interview with").
  7. Omit all filler words (in view of the fact that $\rightarrow$ because; subsequent to $\rightarrow$ after; for the purpose of $\rightarrow$ to).

Grammar Rules

• Pronoun Usage:

  • Subject Pronouns: $\text{I}$, $\text{we}$, $\text{you}$, $\text{he}$, $\text{she}$, $\text{it}$, $\text{they}$, $\text{who}$, $\text{whoever}$.
  • Object Pronouns: $\text{me}$, $\text{us}$, $\text{you}$, $\text{him}$, $\text{her}$, $\text{it}$, $\text{them}$, $\text{whom}$, $\text{whomever}$.
  • Possessive Pronouns: $\text{my}$, $\text{our}$, $\text{your}$, $\text{his}$, $\text{her}$, $\text{its}$, $\text{their}$, $\text{whose}$ (Note: Possessive pronouns never take apostrophes).
  • Selection Test: Temporarily drop compound subjects/objects to isolate the correct pronoun sound (e.g., "[Officer Jones and] I arrested the suspect"; "He gave [Officer Jones and] me a rough time").
  • Use myself only after the pronouns $\text{I}$ or $\text{me}$ have already been established in the sentence (e.g., "I identified myself"; write "Officer Hanson and I returned," not "Officer Hanson and myself returned").
  • Use whom directly following prepositions (e.g., "To whom did you report?").
  • Use who or whom when referring to human beings; never use that (e.g., "He is the man who saw the incident").

• Subject and Verb Agreement:

  • Singular subjects require singular verbs; plural subjects require plural verbs.
  • Test subject-verb agreement by isolating the core subject and verb together.
  • Intervening phrases do not alter subject number (e.g., "John, together with Harry and Ted, was assigned").
  • Compound subjects joined by and take a plural verb ("Officer Jones and Officer Wong are going").
  • Compound subjects joined by or or nor agree with the subject closest to the verb ("Either the victim or the witnesses are lying").
  • Indefinite pronouns (one, everyone, everybody, someone, each) strictly take singular verbs ("Everyone is attending").
  • Collective measurements of time, money, weight, and distance take singular verbs ("Fifty dollars is the fine"; "Ten miles is far").

• Adjectives and Adverbs:

  • Adjectives modify nouns (e.g., "a good job").
  • Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs, usually ending in -ly (e.g., "did the job well"; "really tired").
  • Never use real as an adverb (write "really mad" or "very mad," not "real mad").
  • Avoid double comparatives: use -er or more for comparing two items; use -est or most for comparing three or more items (write "quicker" or "more quick," never "more quicker").

• Negation:

  • Avoid double negatives (e.g., write "didn't make a complete stop," not "didn't make no complete stop").
  • Words such as but, only, hardly, and scarcely carry negative meaning—do not combine them with secondary negative verbs (write "could hardly see," not "couldn't hardly see").

• Articles:

  • Do not omit articles ($\text{a}$, $\text{an}$, $\text{the}$) in finalized narrative reports.
  • Use a before words starting with a consonant sound (e.g., a homicide).
  • Use an before words starting with a vowel sound (e.g., an hour, an easy chair).

Sentences That Make Sense

• Sentence Structure Basics:

  • Every complete sentence requires a Subject (names who/what) and a Predicate (tells what happened).
  • Both parts may contain modifiers.
  • The subject may only be omitted in imperative command sentences where "[You]" is understood (e.g., "[You] Stop that man!").

• Sentence Fragments:

  • A fragment is an incomplete sentence group lacking a subject or predicate.
  • Three Common Types of Fragments:
  1. Split Predicate: Separating a compound predicate into an isolated sentence.
     • Incorrect: "The officer chased the suspect. And caught him."
     • Correct: "The officer chased the suspect and caught him."
  2. -ing Word Group: An introductory or attached descriptive phrase standing alone.
     • Incorrect: "He got a ticket. Speeding down the street."
     • Correct (Introductory, requires comma): "Speeding down the street, he received a citation."
     • Correct (Ending, no comma): "He received a citation for speeding down the street."
  3. Subsentence: A clause containing a subject and predicate introduced by a dependent signal word (if, because, unless, when, whenever, while, who, before, although, which, whose, after, as, where, whom, since, that).
     • Incorrect: "I went home. After it got dark."
     • Correct (Introductory, requires comma): "After it got dark, I went home."
     • Correct (Ending, no comma): "I went home after it got dark."

• Run-On Sentences:

  • A run-on sentence incorrectly joins two complete main clauses without proper punctuation or conjunctions.
  • Three Methods to Fix Run-On Sentences:
  1. Separate into two distinct sentences using a period and capital letter.
  2. Join clauses using a comma and a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so).
  3. Join clauses using a semicolon, either alone or followed by a transitional conjunctive adverb.

• Combining Sentences:

  • Consolidate short, repetitive sentences into single, mature sentences.
  • Choppy: "The suspect is 5' 2". He is male. He is white."
  • Mature: "The suspect is a 5' 2" white male."

Spelling, Homonyms, and Apostrophes

• Spelling Improvement Strategies:

  • Consult a compact speller/divider or dictionary whenever uncertain.
  • Maintain a personal list of frequently misspelled words.
  • Memorize tricky police terms (subpoena, lieutenant, sergeant, burglary, misdemeanor, warrant, surveillance).
  • Rules for Word Endings:
  • Drop silent -e before adding vowel endings (e.g., make $\rightarrow$ making).
  • Double the final consonant when adding endings to single-syllable short-vowel words (e.g., stop $\rightarrow$ stopped; occur $\rightarrow$ occurred).
  • For words ending in -y preceded by a consonant, change -y to -i and add -es (e.g., burglary $\rightarrow$ burglaries). If preceded by a vowel, simply add -s (e.g., boy $\rightarrow$ boys).

• Key Homonyms:

  • accept (receive) / except (exclude)
  • affect (influence - verb) / effect (result - noun)
  • all ready (prepared) / already (by this time)
  • ascent (climb) / assent (agree)
  • brake (stop device) / break (fracture/pause)
  • capital (money/city) / capitol (government building)
  • cite (summon/quote) / sight (view) / site (location)
  • council (assembly) / counsel (attorney/advice)
  • decent (proper) / descent (downward slope) / dissent (disagreement)
  • desert (abandon/barren land) / dessert (food)
  • forth (forward) / fourth (number 4)
  • hear (listen) / here (location)
  • indict (charge crime) / indite (write)
  • its (possessive) / it's (contraction: it is)
  • knew (past of know) / new (not old)
  • lead (metal) / led (past of lead)
  • principal (chief/money/school head) / principle (rule/truth)
  • precede (come before) / proceed (continue)
  • right (correct/direction) / rite (ceremony) / write (inscribe)
  • their (possessive) / there (place) / they're (contraction: they are)
  • threw (past of throw) / through (end to end)
  • to (direction) / too (also/excess) / two (number 2)
  • whose (possessive) / who's (contraction: who is)
  • your (possessive) / you're (contraction: you are)

• Commonly Confused Words:

  • adapt (adjust) / adopt (take as own)
  • allusion (reference) / illusion (unreal image)
  • ante- (before) / anti- (against)
  • differ from (unlikeness) / differ with (disagree)
  • elicit (evoke) / illicit (illegal)
  • elude (escape) / allude (refer casually)
  • fewer (countable numbers) / less (bulk amount)
  • imply (suggest) / infer (draw conclusion)
  • adjacent (near) / adjoining (touching) / contiguous (contacting)
  • advise (suggest) / inform (tell)
  • amount (bulk) / number (count)
  • anxious (nervous) / eager (looking forward)
  • bimonthly (every 2 months) / semimonthly (twice a month)
  • credible (believable) / creditable (praiseworthy)
  • farther (physical distance) / further (degree/extent)

• Apostrophes:

  • Contractions: Indicates missing letters (can't, it's, you're).
  • Singular Possession: Add 's (the boy's coat = coat of the boy).
  • Plural Possession: Add s' (the boys' coats = coats of the boys).
  • Irregular Plural Possession: Add 's (the men's room = room of the men).
  • Possessive Pronouns: Never use an apostrophe (its, yours, ours, theirs, whose).
  • Plurals of Letters/Figures: Add 's (three A's).

Abbreviations, Numbers, and Capitalization

• Abbreviations:

  • Notes: Use standard field abbreviations (APB, BAC, BOLO, DOA, DOB, DUI, M.O., NCIC, VIN).
  • Reports: Do not abbreviate except for standard titles ($\text{Dr.}$), street designations in complete addresses ($\text{St.}$, $\text{Ave.}$, $\text{Blvd.}$), time ($\text{a.m.}$, $\text{p.m.}$, $\text{hrs.}$), speed ($\text{m.p.h.}$), and well-known initials ($\text{FBI}$, $\text{NCIC}$).
  • e.g. vs. i.e.:
  • e.g. (exempli gratia): Used to introduce examples (e.g., "crimes such as robbery, arson, theft"). Follow with a comma.
  • i.e. (id est): Used to introduce a clarifying restatement or explanation (i.e., "put in jail"). Follow with a comma.
  • Punctuation: Place periods after lowercase/mixed abbreviations ($\text{Dr.}$, $\text{approx.}$, $\text{m.p.h.}$); omit periods for all-cap initialisms ($\text{FBI}$, $\text{DOA}$, $\text{ASAP}$).

• Numbers:

  • Spell out numbers below $10$; use figures for numbers $10$ and above.
  • Spell out any number that opens a sentence.
  • Always use figures for dates, street numbers, page numbers, times, percentages, monetary amounts, and speeds (e.g., "$70\,\text{m.p.h.}$ in a $30\,\text{m.p.h.}$ zone").
  • Maintain consistency within a sentence; do not mix words and figures for similar items.

• Capitalization:

  • Capitalize:
  • First word of a sentence.
  • Proper names, nationalities, races, and religious groups ($\text{Joe}$, $\text{American}$, $\text{Lutheran}$).
  • Specific geographic names ($\text{Mississippi River}$, $\text{Minnesota}$).
  • Official organizations and institutions ($\text{Los Angeles Police Department}$, $\text{FBI}$).
  • Specific streets, buildings, ships, and brand names ($\text{Mercantile Building}$, $\text{Thirtieth Street}$, $\text{Cadillac}$).
  • Days, months, and holidays ($\text{Sunday}$, $\text{December}$, $\text{Christmas}$).
  • Official titles preceding a name ($\text{Lieutenant Smith}$, $\text{Sergeant Jones}$).
  • Do Not Capitalize:
  • General common nouns ($\text{building}$, $\text{street}$, $\text{police department}$).
  • Directions unless referring to a specific region (write "drive south," but "lives in the South").
  • Seasons ($\text{summer}$, $\text{winter}$).
  • Academic subjects unless containing a number or proper language ($\text{history}$, $\text{algebra 1}$, $\text{English}$).
  • Family relations preceded by a possessive pronoun ($\text{my uncle}$).
  • Titles following a name or standing alone ($\text{Jones, sergeant}$; $\text{the lieutenant}$).

Commas and Other Punctuation

• Comma Rules:

  • Rule 1: Main Clauses: Place a comma between main clauses connected by coordinating conjunctions (and, but, or, nor, for, yet, so). Avoid comma splices (joining main clauses with a comma but no conjunction).
  • Rule 2: Introductory Phrases/Clauses: Place a comma after introductory element exceeding five words. Commas are optional for brief introductions of five words or fewer.
  • Rule 3: Series: Separate three or more items in a series with commas. Omit the comma before the final and (the Harvard/Oxford comma is omitted in standard law enforcement reporting style). Use commas between coordinate adjectives preceding a noun. Use commas to separate elements of dates and addresses.
  • Rule 4: Sentence Interrupters:
  • Nonrestrictive: Use commas to enclose parenthetical interrupters or nonessential clauses that can be removed without altering core sentence meaning.
  • Restrictive: Do not use commas around essential clauses required to define sentence meaning (e.g., write "An officer who dislikes people is in the wrong field").

• Other Punctuation Marks:

  • Parentheses ( ): Enclose figures or downplay supplementary background information.
  • Dashes (—): Mark sudden emphasis, structural breaks, or summarize lists containing internal commas.
  • Slashes / Diagonals (/): Express alternatives (and/or, true/false), dual roles (owner/operator), dates (4/6/20--), and fractions (2/3rds).
  • Semicolons (;): Separate two main clauses not connected by a conjunction, or separate series items containing internal commas.
  • Colons (:): Follow business letter salutations (Dear Sir:), separate hours and minutes in 12-hour time (9:15 a.m. — omit in 24-hour military time 0915), and introduce formal lists following expressions like as follows: or the following:.
  • Quotation Marks (" "): Enclose verbatim spoken words, titles of short works, or specific slang. Periods and commas always go inside final quotation marks. Semicolons and colons always go outside. Question marks go inside only if they apply directly to the quoted matter.
  • Underlining / Italics: Underline titles of books, magazines, newspapers, movies, TV shows, works of art, named vessels/aircraft, and foreign terms.
  • Hyphens (-): Connect compound numbers ($20\text{--}99$), telephone numbers, unit modifiers preceding nouns (top-of-the-line), prefixes (ex-, self-, all-), and words split at line breaks.

Appendix Summaries & Case Guidelines

• Appendix A: Major Offenses Investigation Checklists:

  • Murder: Protect scene; establish strict entry log; limit access to investigators; photograph/diagram/videotape; execute grid searches; isolate witnesses; collect trace evidence; obtain homicide search warrants; recognize $70\%$ of victims know their killer.
  • Rape: Provide female presence/crisis support; secure medical examination; utilize sexual assault evidence collection kits; preserve clothing and bedsheets for trace evidence; execute search warrants; obtain exact verbatim quotes of suspect statements; account for defense claims (alibi, consent, diminished capacity, non-occurrence).
  • Robbery: Note exact arrival times; broadcast immediate BOLO details; secure scene; separate witnesses; photograph victim injuries; secure medical releases; obtain verbatim suspect quotes; run photo/physical/voice lineups.
  • Burglary: Determine last known intact time and discovery time; catalog complete property details (make, model, serial number, value); identify points of entry/exit; lift latent prints; canvass neighborhood.
  • Larceny / Theft: Establish victim care/control/ownership; record exact loss details and serial numbers; search for physical footprints/tireprints; interview witnesses separately.
  • Arson: Ensure continuous official scene presence to preserve warrantless entry legality; wear safety equipment against toxic residue; maintain perimeter log; coordinate with fire investigators; document burn patterns/charring; establish "negative corpus" (ruling out natural/accidental causes).
  • Assault: Detail physical injuries; photograph wounds immediately and again $2\text{--}3$ days later (when deep bruising displays); document weapons, escalation, or provocation; evaluate domestic/child abuse fresh complaints; gather blood/urine samples if drug/alcohol diminished capacity is raised.

• Appendix B: Arrest Reports & Probable Cause Building Blocks:

  • Arrest reports must construct an chronological chain of facts demonstrating lawful probable cause.
  • DUI Narrative Sequence Example:
  1. Initial Observation: Sighted red Camaro traveling below speed limit, weaving across lanes.
  2. Action Taken: Followed vehicle for three blocks; observed continued weaving at $20\,\text{m.p.h.}$; activated emergency lights.
  3. Suspect Reaction: Vehicle delayed stopping for two additional blocks.
  4. Driver Contact: Smelled strong alcoholic odor; observed flushed face, red/watery eyes.
  5. Physical Observations: Driver staggered upon exit, leaned on door, fumbled wallet.
  6. Field Sobriety Tests (FSTs): Administered under street light after confirming no physical disabilities. Documented specific failures across Finger Count, Alphabet Recital, One-Leg Stand, Written Alphabet, and Walk-and-Turn.
  7. Arrest & Chemical Testing: Placed suspect under arrest based on FST failures; secured vehicle; transported to jail; administered chemical breath test ($0.19/0.20$ BAC); provided Miranda advisement; recorded voluntary waiver and confession ("drank four martinis"); turned over for booking.

• Appendix C: Common Field Note Abbreviations:

  • AKA: Also known as
  • A/O: Arresting Officer
  • APB: All Points Bulletin
  • BAC: Blood Alcohol Content
  • BOLO: Be On the Lookout
  • CBA: Cleared by Arrest
  • DMV: Department of Motor Vehicles
  • DOA: Dead on Arrival
  • DOB: Date of Birth
  • DOT: Direction of Travel
  • DUI / DWI: Driving Under the Influence / Driving While Intoxicated
  • GOA: Gone on Arrival
  • M.O.: Modus Operandi
  • NCIC: National Crime Information Center
  • P.C.: Penal Code
  • ROA: Referred to Other Agency
  • UCR: Uniform Crime Reports
  • VIN: Vehicle Identification Number
  • WFA / WMJ: White Female Adult / White Male Juvenile

• Evaluation Checklist for Reports:

  • Content: Is it factual, accurate, objective, complete, and chronological?
  • Form: Is it concise, clear, mechanically correct, standard English, legible, and submitted on time?
  • Style: Does it use first person ($\text{I}$), active voice, past tense, proper modification, clear pronoun references, parallel structure, and short paragraphs?
  • Mechanics: Are sentences free of fragments and run-ons? Are spelling, apostrophes, abbreviations, numbers, capitalization, and punctuation entirely correct?
  • Visualization: Does the narrative allow a reader who was not present to visualize exactly what occurred?