Lecture 14: Spatial Studies and Social Systems
Morton Fried classification:
Egalitarian societies: Characterized by equal access to resources, power, and prestige among all members, often seen in small-scale societies such as hunter-gatherer groups.
Ranked societies: These societies have hierarchical structures. While all members still have access to resources, individuals gain prestige through lineage, achievements, or social roles. Examples include some tribal societies where chiefs hold higher status but resources are more evenly distributed than in stratified societies.
Stratified societies: Defined by a significant disparity in wealth and power between social classes, leading to pronounced social hierarchies. These societies often include elites who control resources and influence over political institutions, contrasted with a lower class that possesses minimal power and access to resources. Examples include various ancient civilizations and modern nations.
Elman Service's Typology
Types of societies classified by Elman Service:
Bands: Typically small, kin-based groups with populations rarely exceeding a few dozen. Members are often nomadic, relying on hunting and gathering and maintaining a fluid and egalitarian social structure.
Tribes: Larger societal units that emerge from band societies, often forming village communities. Tribes are usually characterized by a more settled lifestyle and can engage in agriculture and semi-nomadic herding; leadership typically arises based on personal or situational qualities rather than formal authority.
Chiefdoms: Feature more centralized authority, often led by a chief who holds power over multiple villages. This political structure allows for the organization of labor for large communal projects and facilitates resource distribution. Chiefs often inherit their positions, leading to a defined social hierarchy.
States: The most complex societal structure; characterized by centralized governments that create laws, collect taxes, and maintain military defense. Social stratification is pronounced, with numerous social classes based on wealth, occupation, and political power, as seen in ancient empires like Rome or modern nations.
Social Classes: Distinct categorizations within a society based on wealth, power, prestige, and occupation; varying significantly across different cultures and affecting individuals' opportunities for social mobility and access to resources.
Nuclear and Extended Families
Nuclear Families: Generally consist of two parents and their children, common in band societies (e.g., Shoshoni), where individual family units are often the primary economic and social units, focusing on the immediate needs and communal survival.
Extended Families: Comprise larger family networks that may include grandparents, aunts, uncles, and cousins living together or in close proximity. More common in societies like the Iroquois, these family structures support social and economic networks, providing care, assistance, and cultural continuity across generations.
Settlement Archaeology
Methods of investigation in settlement archaeology include:
Identifying archaeological sites and assessing their functions within broader landscapes, taking into consideration the socio-political and economic contexts of the time.
Analyzing site locations to determine their strategic importance and timing, considering environmental factors and resource availability that influenced settlement patterns.
Key activities in this field:
Examination of material culture, including artifacts and construction techniques, such as log walls or wooden posts, to infer social organization and technological capabilities of past societies.
Types of Sites
Different categories of archaeological sites include:
Household units: Often identified by distinctive features like rooftop entrances or specialized kitchens, indicating the domestic activities and social dynamics of the inhabitants.
Ceremonial sites: These venues serve cultural and religious functions, exemplified by structures like La Venta's ceremonial core, indicating the societal importance of rituals and communal gatherings.
Functional nodes in the landscape: Sites where specific activities took place, crucial for understanding the distribution of resources and social structures within a region, resonating with the ecological and cultural factors at play.
Archaeology of Landscapes
Example: La Venta, Veracruz - Key features of the Olmec culture include:
Rectangular courts: Often related to social and ceremonial gatherings.
‘Great Pyramid’: Serves as a monumental structure indicative of religious or political authority, reflecting the complexity of Olmec society.
Cultural Properties and Trails
Examination of Traditional Cultural Properties: Sites like Zuni Salt Lake, New Mexico, hold significant cultural value, reflecting the traditions and practices of Indigenous peoples, serving both historical and contemporary relevance.
Native American trails in regions such as the Allegheny Mountains represent traditional routes used for travel, trade, and cultural exchange, important for understanding historical movements and social interactions of various communities.
Social Use of Space
Discussion of space segmentation: Analysis suggests that an increase in space segmentation correlates with rising social complexity, indicating structured societal roles and diminished mobility for community members.
Segmentation of Space Models
Diametric Model: Organizes social structures based on kinship, suggesting that social stratification is influenced by clan relationships.
Concentric Model: Dwellings are arranged around a central feature, reflecting the importance of community gatherings or religious practices as centralizing forces.
Hub-and-Spoke Model: Dwellings are arrayed around a central plaza, often indicating social or ceremonial significance, fostering interactions between various sections of the community.
Reconstructing Past Populations
Methods include:
Analyzing artifact densities alongside dwelling counts to estimate past populations, enabling archaeologists to understand settlement patterns and social organization over time.
For example, the estimation of the heights of Monongahela individuals based on skeletal remains contributes valuable data regarding health, nutrition, and social structure.
Mortuary Behavior in Social Groups
This field examines burial processes within communities, offering insights into social structure and cultural beliefs regarding life and death, with grave goods reflecting status and role within the community.
Tables and figures in archaeological studies illustrate hypothesized divisions and physical characteristics of burial sites, putting forth theories on social organization and cultural practices around death.
Cahokia
Cahokia is a significant archaeological site known for its complex social systems and urban structure, including:
Large earthen mounds serving various functions, from ceremonial to residential, showcasing the engineering capabilities of the society.
Evidence of social stratification and chiefdoms, indicating a well-organized political system that facilitated complex societal interactions and resource management.