Neuroscience Exam 2

Study Guide Outline

Module 4: Neuroplasticity

Terms

·         Neuroplasticity

·         Functional plasticity

·         Structural plasticity

·         Cell assemblies

·         Tetanus

·         Long-term potentiation

·         Neuroessentialism

 

Conceptual Understanding

·         Describe the differences between structural and functional neuroplasticity (when does it occur, what level of analysis, mechanisms that may underlie each form of plasticity?).

·         Sommelier research study:

o   Why was this considered an ecologically valid study of neuroplasticity?

o   What does it mean that this study used a longitudinal design?

o   Who were the participants?

o   What were the independent variables?

o   What were the dependent variables?

o   What were the hypotheses?

o   What effect did sommelier training have olfactory bulb volume, cortical thickness, and olfactory performance?

·         Describe evidence supporting the notion that the following activities may ‘boost’ neuroplasticity: learning a new motor skill, learning a second language, video game playing, engaging in cognitive training exercises, sleep, physical activity, meditation, and healthy diets.

 

Module 4: Neurodegeneration

Terms

·         Concussion

·         Coup injury

·         Contrecoup injury

·         Asymptomatic non-concussive injury

·         Traumatic Encephalopathy Syndrome (TES)

·         Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy (CTE)

·         Co-morbidity

·         Convenience sample

·         Ventriculomegaly

·         Cortical atrophy

·         Microtubules

·         Tau protein

·         Neurofibrillary tangles

·         Macrophages

·         Astrocytosis

·         Perivascular

 

Conceptual Understanding

·         What is the difference between concussion ‘signs’ and ‘symptoms? Provide examples of each.

·         Who was the first neuropathologist to diagnose CTE in the brain of a former NFL football player?

·         What criteria must be met for an individual to be diagnosed with TES?

·         When can CTE be diagnosed?

·         McKee et al. (2023) [be sure that you understand how to read the tables in the research article and that you can visually identify the macroscopic and microscopic changes in the brain associated with CTE]

o   Why did the researchers feel that it was important to study a younger group of individuals exposed to repeated head impacts?

o   What does it mean that ‘retrospective clinical evaluations’ were conducted on the brain donors included in the study?

o   What does it mean that the neuropathologists conducted the neuropathological evaluation of the donor brains were ‘blind’ to the clinical evaluation?

o   What percentage of the sample had autopsy confirmed CTE?

o   The sample for the study was divided into participants who were diagnosed with CTE and those who did not have CTE.

§  How did these two sub-groups differ with respect to the following demographic and athletic characteristics (was there a statistically significant difference between the groups): age at death, sex, racial identity, education level, sport played, how long they had played football, and highest level of playing football?

§  Did the sample with CTE have statistically significantly more concussions than the non-CTE group?

§  Was the sample with CTE more likely to have had traumatic brain injury with loss of consciousness?

§  Was the sample with CTE more likely to have had a history in the military?

§  Were athletes in the CTE group more likely to have committed suicide?

§  Did the CTE sub-group have significantly more clinically meaningful symptoms compared to the non-CTE group?

§  Which clinical features were most prominent among the participants in the study?

o   Describe the gross neuropathologic features associated with CTE.

o   Describe the microscopic neuropathologic features associated with CTE.

o   What were the most striking results reported from this study on younger athletes?

 

 

 

 

 

Module 5: Commonalties Among the Sensory Systems

Terms

·         Reception

·         Transduction

·         Transmission

·         Coding

·         Adequate stimuli

·         Receptive field

·         Law of Specific Nerve Energies

·         Labeled Lines Principle

·         Law of Projection

·         Contralateral vs. ipsilateral processing

·         Functional segregation

·         Hierarchical organization

·         Parallel processing

·         Synesthesia

 

Conceptual Understanding

·         What do we mean when we say that sensory organs contain modality-specific sensory receptors?

·         In what division of the nervous system are sensory receptors located?

·         Describe the differences between sensory transduction channels and voltage-activated channels?

·         Explain how length and strength of a stimulus affect the timing and frequency of action potentials in a sensory nerve, as well as the amount of release of neurotransmitter from sensory nerves.

·         Explain how the pattern of action potentials in sensory nerves may be affected by continued, constant stimulation.

·         Primary cortical areas for sensory systems contain maps. What do we mean by that and what are the characteristics of these maps?

 

Module 5: The Visual System

Terms

·         Electromagnetic spectrum

·         Incident vs. reflected light

·         Photoreceptors

·         Visual field

·         Striate cortex

 

Conceptual Understanding

·         What is the adequate stimulus for visual processing?

·         How do we see objects that don’t emit light?

·         Identify and describe the structures and functions of the eyeball.

·         What does is mean when we say that the image of an object we are viewing is reversed in the retina?

·         Explain the inside-out arrangement of the eye.

·         Describe the differences between rods vs. cones.

·         Explain the process of transduction and the nature of the communication between photoreceptors, bipolar cells, and retinal ganglion cells.

·         Be able to draw and label a diagram to explain visually (pun intended) why information from our left visual field is sent to the right primary visual cortex and information from our right visual field is sent to our left primary visual cortex.

·         Describe the three main visual pathways in the brain and their functions: tectopulvinar, hypothalamic, geniculostriate.

·         Describe the two primary cortical visual processing streams and their functions.

·         Compare and contrast the receptive field properties of photoreceptors, bipolar cells, retinal ganglion cells, lateral geniculate nucleus cells, cells in the primary visual cortex, cells in V2, cells in V4, cells in MT, and cells in IT. [Be sure to understand how light on different regions of receptive field affects graded and action potentials.]

·         Explain what we mean when we say that functional segregation creates the ‘binding problem.’

·         Describe the characteristics of blindsight.

·         Describe the characteristics of object agnosia and prosopagnosia.

o   What do we mean when we say that these disorders are modality-specific?

o   What is the difference between apperceptive and associative prosopagnosia?

o   What is the difference between face traits and face states? Provide examples.

o   Explain featural vs. configural information with respect to face processing.

o   Explain the similarities and differences between developmental prosopagnosia and acquired prosopagnosia.

 

Study Guide with Defined Terms + Concepts

Module 3: Neuroplasticity

Terms

  1. Neuroplasticity

    • The brain's ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections in response to learning, experience, or injury.

  2. Functional Plasticity

    • The brain’s ability to transfer functions from damaged areas to healthy areas. It’s an adaptive change in how the brain functions without necessarily altering its structure.

  3. Structural Plasticity

    • Changes in the physical structure of the brain, such as the growth of new neurons or synapses, in response to experience or environmental changes.

  4. Cell Assemblies

    • Groups of neurons that become functionally connected, working together to perform a specific function or represent a specific memory or skill.

  5. Tetanus

    • A high-frequency stimulation pattern used to induce long-term potentiation (LTP) or long-lasting strengthening of synapses.

  6. Long-term Potentiation (LTP)

    • A long-lasting increase in synaptic strength between two neurons, thought to be a key mechanism of learning and memory.

  7. Neuroessentialism

    • The view that all aspects of behavior and mental functions are primarily influenced by brain structure and neurobiology.

Conceptual Understanding

  1. Differences between Structural and Functional Neuroplasticity

    • When does it occur?

      • Functional plasticity occurs immediately following brain injury or experience, adjusting how the brain works.

      • Structural plasticity happens over a longer period, involving physical changes to brain regions.

    • Level of Analysis

      • Functional plasticity is analyzed at the level of neural circuits or systems.

      • Structural plasticity is analyzed at the cellular or anatomical level.

    • Mechanisms

      • Functional plasticity often involves changes in synaptic strength, as seen in LTP.

      • Structural plasticity involves the growth of new neurons (neurogenesis) or synapses (synaptogenesis).

  2. Sommelier Research Study

    • Ecologically Valid Study: It was considered ecologically valid because it studied the impact of real-world training (wine tasting) on brain plasticity, simulating real-life experience rather than artificial tasks.

    • Longitudinal Design: The study followed participants over an extended period, observing changes over time.

    • Participants: Wine sommeliers, who have extensive training in olfactory discrimination.

    • Independent Variables: Sommelier training (expertise in wine tasting).

    • Dependent Variables: Olfactory bulb volume, cortical thickness, and olfactory performance.

    • Hypotheses: Sommelier training would increase olfactory bulb volume, cortical thickness, and improve olfactory performance.

    • Effects of Training: The training led to increased olfactory bulb volume, thicker cortical regions involved in olfactory processing, and enhanced olfactory performance.

  3. Boosting Neuroplasticity

    • Learning a New Motor Skill: Engages areas of the brain responsible for motor control, promoting neurogenesis.

    • Learning a Second Language: Enhances cognitive flexibility and alters neural networks, particularly in the left hemisphere.

    • Video Game Playing: Improves attention, spatial awareness, and problem-solving skills by altering the brain’s reward system and sensory-motor networks.

    • Cognitive Training Exercises: Strengthen neural networks associated with memory, attention, and executive function.

    • Sleep: Consolidates learning and strengthens synaptic connections.

    • Physical Activity: Increases the production of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), promoting neurogenesis.

    • Meditation: Alters brain regions associated with attention, emotional regulation, and self-awareness.

    • Healthy Diets: Provide essential nutrients for brain function and support neuroplasticity, especially omega-3 fatty acids.

Module 4: Neurodegeneration

Terms

  1. Concussion

    • A mild traumatic brain injury caused by a blow to the head, leading to temporary brain dysfunction.

  2. Coup Injury

    • Brain injury occurring at the site of impact.

  3. Contrecoup Injury

    • Brain injury occurring on the opposite side of the brain from the site of impact.

  4. Asymptomatic Non-Concussive Injury

    • A mild brain injury that does not show obvious symptoms immediately.

  5. Traumatic Encephalopathy Syndrome (TES)

    • A group of symptoms associated with repeated head trauma, leading to cognitive and behavioral changes.

  6. Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy (CTE)

    • A neurodegenerative disease linked to repeated head injuries, marked by tau protein buildup in the brain.

  7. Co-morbidity

    • The presence of more than one disorder or condition in a patient at the same time.

  8. Convenience Sample

    • A non-random sample chosen based on ease of access, rather than representativeness.

  9. Ventriculomegaly

    • Abnormal enlargement of the brain’s ventricles, often seen in neurodegenerative disorders.

  10. Cortical Atrophy

  • The loss or degeneration of neurons in the cerebral cortex, often associated with neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer's.

  1. Microtubules

  • Structural components of cells that help maintain cell shape and are involved in intracellular transport; disrupted in neurodegenerative diseases.

  1. Tau Protein

  • A protein that stabilizes microtubules in neurons; in CTE, tau forms tangles that disrupt brain function.

  1. Neurofibrillary Tangles

  • Abnormal clumps of tau protein that accumulate inside neurons in diseases like Alzheimer’s and CTE.

  1. Macrophages

  • Immune cells that engulf and digest debris, including dead neurons, in the brain after injury.

  1. Astrocytosis

  • The proliferation of astrocytes (a type of glial cell) in response to brain injury or neurodegeneration.

  1. Perivascular

  • Refers to the space surrounding blood vessels, where changes can occur in various neurodegenerative diseases.

Conceptual Understanding

  1. Signs vs. Symptoms of Concussion

    • Signs: Observable effects (e.g., confusion, balance problems).

    • Symptoms: Reported by the individual (e.g., headache, dizziness).

  2. First Neuropathologist to Diagnose CTE: Dr. Bennet Omalu diagnosed CTE in the brain of former NFL player Mike Webster in 2005.

  3. TES Diagnosis Criteria: Includes symptoms like memory loss, mood swings, and cognitive decline following repetitive head trauma.

  4. CTE Diagnosis: CTE can only be diagnosed post-mortem through neuropathological examination of the brain tissue.

  5. McKee et al. (2023) Study

    • Why Study Younger Athletes: Younger individuals may show earlier or more significant changes, helping understand CTE development.

    • Retrospective Clinical Evaluations: Researchers reviewed past clinical data of brain donors.

    • Blind Evaluation: Neuropathologists were unaware of clinical diagnoses to avoid bias.

    • CTE Diagnosis in the Study: About 90% of the sample showed autopsy-confirmed CTE.

  6. Neuropathological Features of CTE

    • Gross: Enlarged ventricles, cortical atrophy, and reduced brain volume.

    • Microscopic: Tau neurofibrillary tangles and neuronal degeneration.

  7. Striking Results from Younger Athletes

    • Early CTE Development: Evidence of CTE in athletes who had been exposed to fewer years of head trauma than previously expected.

Module 5: Sensory Systems

Terms

  1. Reception

    • The process of sensory receptors detecting stimuli.

  2. Transduction

    • The conversion of physical stimuli (e.g., light, sound) into electrical signals in sensory neurons.

  3. Transmission

    • The process by which sensory information is sent to the brain via nerve pathways.

  4. Coding

    • The process of representing sensory information through patterns of neural activity.

  5. Adequate Stimuli

    • The type of stimulus to which a sensory receptor is most responsive (e.g., light for photoreceptors).

  6. Receptive Field

    • The area of sensory space that a particular sensory receptor responds to.

  7. Law of Specific Nerve Energies

    • States that each sensory nerve is specialized to convey one type of sensory information.

  8. Labeled Lines Principle

    • Sensory information is processed along specific neural pathways dedicated to particular sensory modalities.

  9. Law of Projection

    • Sensory information is perceived as originating from the site of receptor stimulation, regardless of where it is processed in the brain.

  10. Contralateral vs. Ipsilateral Processing

  • Contralateral: Processing on the opposite side of the body (e.g., visual pathways).

  • Ipsilateral: Processing on the same side of the body.

  1. Functional Segregation

  • Different brain regions specialize in processing different aspects of sensory information.

  1. Hierarchical Organization

  • Sensory processing occurs in stages, from simple features to complex representations.

  1. Parallel Processing

  • Multiple sensory pathways process information simultaneously, allowing for more efficient perception.

  1. Synesthesia

  • A condition where stimulation of one sensory modality leads to automatic experiences in another modality (e.g., seeing colors when hearing music).

Conceptual Understanding

  1. Modality-Specific Sensory Receptors

    • Sensory organs contain receptors specialized to detect specific types of stimuli (e.g., photoreceptors for light, mechanoreceptors for touch).

  2. Division of the Nervous System for Sensory Receptors

    • Sensory receptors are located in the peripheral nervous system (PNS) and send information to the central nervous system (CNS).

  3. Sensory Transduction Channels vs. Voltage-Activated Channels

    • Transduction Channels: Convert physical stimuli into electrical signals.

    • Voltage-Activated Channels: Open in response to changes in membrane potential, allowing action potentials to propagate.

  4. Effect of Stimulus Length and Strength

    • Stronger or longer stimuli lead to higher action potential frequency and greater neurotransmitter release from sensory neurons.

  5. Impact of Constant Stimulation on Sensory Nerves

    • Continuous stimulation may lead to sensory adaptation, where the response of sensory neurons diminishes over time.