American History Overview: Revolution to Market Revolution

Valley Forge (1777-1778)

  • Baron Friedrich von Steuben

    • Prussian military officer recognized for his contributions as a drillmaster at Valley Forge.

    • His leadership transformed American soldiers into a disciplined military force during the American Revolution.

  • General Charles Cornwallis

    • Successor to Sir Henry Clinton, noted for military engagements with American forces.

    • Capable commander who successfully chased continental troops.

    • By mid-1780, established significant military control in South Carolina.

  • Battle of Camden

    • Horatio Gates arrived with approximately 3,000 troops to reinforce South Carolina.

  • Benedict Arnold

    • Initially celebrated for his military talent as a hero of American battles but later betrayed the revolutionary cause.

    • Characterized as insecure despite his brilliance in military strategy.

  • Battle of Yorktown

    • Cornwallis commanded 7,500 troops against a combined force of approximately 16,000 American and French troops.

Treaty of Paris (1783)

  • This treaty encompassed 82 articles of peace, with key agreements including:

    1. Britain recognized American independence.

    2. Britain agreed to withdraw its troops from American territory, although this promise was not immediately honored.

  • Consequences of the Revolution

    • Approximately 26,000 Americans died during the conflict:

    • 7,000 died in battle

    • 10,000 succumbed to disease

    • 8,500 died in British prisons.

    • Notably, the war contributed to the escape of many slaves in northern states and Georgia, with some territories adopting gradual emancipation.

Formation of New Governments

  • Following independence, states adopted written constitutions that guaranteed rights such as religious freedom and made taxation more progressive.

  • The Revolutionary War resulted in the exile of around 60,000 loyalists who fled to Canada, the West Indies, and West Africa.

The Articles of Confederation

  • Ratified in 1781

    • The first written constitution of the United States, featuring a unicameral legislature.

  • Limitations

    • The Confederation lacked the power to impose taxes and regulate interstate or international commerce, and there was no executive branch.

  • Powers Granted

    • The government was only granted essential powers necessary for independence, such as declaring war and conducting foreign relations.

  • Challenges Facing the Confederation

    • The key challenges included establishing national stability, addressing postwar economic issues, and managing western lands.

  • Postwar Settlement

    • The government borrowed funds abroad and printed currency known as continentals.

  • Ordinance of 1785

    • Land was surveyed and sold at a rate of $1 per acre, with one section reserved for school funding.

  • Northwest Ordinance of 1787

    • Established procedures for creating new states from the territory; prohibited slavery in new territories and enshrined population sovereignty in matters of statehood.

Shays's Rebellion (1786-1787)

  • Context

    • Insurrection sparked by property taxes in Massachusetts.

    • Chiefly led by Daniel Shays, a former soldier.

  • Events

    • Shays attempted to travel from Massachusetts to Rhode Island and Vermont, where he was eventually jailed; many participants received pardons.

    • Approximately 1,000 rebels were gathered by the government, showcasing the federal inability to manage civil disorder.

Philadelphia Convention (1787)

  • Purpose

    • Intended to revise the Articles of Confederation or create a new framework for governance.

  • Major Proposals

    • Virginia Plan:

    • Proposed by James Madison, advocating for a strong central government and a bicameral legislature.

    • New Jersey Plan:

    • Proposed by William Patterson, supporting a unicameral legislature that favored smaller states.

  • Great Compromise:

    • Proposed by Roger Sherman, establishing a bicameral legislature:

    • Proportional representation in the lower house

    • Equal representation in the upper house.

Ratification of the Constitution

  • James Madison and the Bill of Rights (1791)

    • Resulted from Anti-Federalist pressure advocating for individual liberties.

    • Key amendments addressed the issue of slavery and limited governmental powers.

Washington's Priorities as President

  • Goals

    1. Restore fiscal responsibility

    2. Enhance political credibility.

  • Hamilton's Program

    1. Pay off national and state debts.

    2. Creation of a new national debt with interest-bearing bonds.

    3. Establishment of a Bank of the United States.

    4. Imposition of a whiskey tax to raise revenue and tariffs to stimulate domestic industry.

First Bank of the United States

  • Modeled after the Bank of England, it faced opposition from Thomas Jefferson and James Madison on constitutional grounds.

  • Whiskey Tax (1791)

    • Enacted to generate revenue, leading to higher costs for consumers.

Whiskey Rebellion (1794)

  • Farmers in western Pennsylvania, Virginia, Maryland, and the Carolinas revolted against the whiskey tax, leading to clashes with tax collectors.

  • Response

    • Washington dispatched federal troops, and only two rebels were convicted of treason, both later pardoned.

Impact of the French Revolution (1793)

  • Amidst European conflicts, Washington declared neutrality as Britain seized American ships and engaged in impressment.

  • Jay's Treaty (1794)

    • Negotiated to resolve issues of impressment and trade; led to political divisions between Federalists and Republicans due to concessions made to Britain.

XYZ Affair (1798)

  • Background

    • Talleyrand, the French Minister of Foreign Affairs, sent agents (referred to as X, Y, Z) to demand bribes from the American delegation for negotiations.

  • Significance

    • This incident canceled the Franco-American alliance and intensified political division in the United States.

Fries Rebellion (1799-1800)

  • Background

    • Resistance against taxes on houses and land led by John Fries, a German immigrant.

  • Adams sent a militia to suppress the rebellion, resulting in arrests and sentences; Fries was later pardoned.

Alien and Sedition Acts (1798)

  • Sedition Act

    • Imposed penalties for public assembly and publication against the government.

  • Alien Acts

    • Extended the waiting period for immigrants to achieve citizenship and empowered the president to deport non-naturalized foreigners during wartime.

The Revolution of 1800

  • Election outcome: Jefferson (73 electoral votes) tied with Aaron Burr; both defeated Adams (65 electoral votes).

  • Jefferson's Vision

    • Aimed to eliminate federal taxes, dismantle Federalist innovations, and reduce military expenses.

Jefferson's Judicial Battles

  • Marbury v. Madison (1803)

    • A landmark case establishing the principle of judicial review, allowing the Supreme Court to declare acts of Congress unconstitutional.

Louisiana Purchase (1803)

  • Significance

    • Landmark achievement of the Jefferson administration, acquiring 828,000 square miles for $15 million.

  • Exploratory Expedition

    • Led by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, aided by Sacagawea.

Lewis and Clark Expedition

  • Objectives

    1. Establish relations with Native American tribes.

    2. Collect data on various aspects of geography and nature.

    3. Inspire future explorations.

Burr's Duel with Hamilton (1804)

  • Background

    • Aaron Burr challenged Hamilton to a duel due to Hamilton’s disparaging remarks about his character.

  • Outcome

    • Burr killed Hamilton and subsequently sought to sever the union and create a new territory in the west.

  • Surrender

    • Burr was later investigated and surrendered but was acquitted.

Embargo Act (Dec. 1807)

  • Prohibited American ships from trading with foreign ports, proving economically harmful domestically.

  • Followed by the Non-Intercourse Act (1809), which allowed trade with countries except for Britain and France.

Barbary Wars (1801-1804)

  • Conflict with North African states imposing tribute for trade rights in the Mediterranean resulting from Jefferson halting payments to Tripoli.

Jefferson’s Views on Race

  • Held complex views regarding race, expressing concern that African Americans lacked certain skills and intelligence.

  • Demonstrated opposition to slavery while recognizing its socio-political implications.

The Market Revolution (1800-1848)

  • Early developments included improved infrastructure, such as roads, canals, and railroads.

  • Eli Whitney's Cotton Gin (1793) revolutionized cotton production, greatly enhancing American slavery.

Factory System and Labor

  • Establishment

    • Samuel Slater opened the first factory in 1790 in Pawtucket, Rhode Island.

  • The Factory Town of Lowell epitomized industrialization, employing young women known as "Mill Girls" in textile production.

  • Working Conditions

    • Long hours, low pay ($1 per week), and strict living conditions; dangers from machinery were rampant.

Growth of Immigration

  • Germans: Skilled craftsmen and farmers settled primarily in areas such as Cincinnati, St. Louis, and Milwaukee.

  • Irish: Fled the Potato Famine, working as laborers on infrastructure projects, causing a rise in nativism among native-born Americans.