Origins of détente

Détente is the name given to the process of easing tensions between the superpowers, especially with regard to nuclear weapons. It is often viewed as a brief, shining moment in which Soviet Chairman Leonid Brezhnev and US President Richard Nixon managed to

come to agreements regarding nuclear weapons and the status quo of Europe. In fact, the move towards reconciliation began much earlier under Khrushchev and Eisenhower. The concept of Mutual Assured Destruction convinced the leaders of the two superpowers to have periodic meetings called summits to discuss global issues

of mutual concern. The first of these was held in Geneva in 1955 and also included the British and French Prime Ministers. Most of the meetings thereafter did not include other countries unless their presence was seen as necessary to the peace process or, in the case of Paris in 1960, when one of their countries was chosen as the site for the summit.

The nuclear arms race hit its height just as the Cuban Missile Crisis showed the world that the superpowers were unwilling to use nuclear armaments against one another for fear of massive retaliation. In theory, and in military strategies planned by generals and admirals, nuclear weapons were seen as an instrument to be used in war. But in 1945

US President Truman decided that the use of nuclear weapons should be a political decision, not a military one. His very public conflict with General Douglas MacArthur over consideration of the use of nuclear weapons against China during the Korean War sprang from precisely this change; never before had political leaders made what could be seen as military decisions. It was up to the politicians to make decisions such as war and peace, and then it was up to the military leaders to decide how to implement the decisions made. Détente is the term used to describe the efforts made to ease tensions between superpowers, with a particular focus on nuclear weapons. This period is often seen as a significant, albeit brief, moment in history when Soviet Chairman Leonid Brezhnev and US President Richard Nixon successfully reached agreements on nuclear armament regulation and the status quo in Europe. The path to détente actually began much earlier during the leadership of Nikita Khrushchev and Dwight D. Eisenhower. One of the pivotal concepts during this time was Mutual Assured Destruction (MAD). This strategy posited that both the United States and the Soviet Union were so heavily armed with nuclear weapons that neither would dare attack the other, as it would lead to total annihilation for both. Understanding the dire consequences of nuclear warfare prompted leaders from both nations to engage in periodic meetings known as summits to discuss significant global issues of common interest. The first of these summits took place in Geneva in 1955 and included not just the superpowers but also the British and French Prime Ministers. Subsequent meetings mainly included only the superpowers, unless the presence of other countries was necessary for the peace process, as exemplified by the 1960 Paris summit, where France hosted the discussions. As tensions escalated during the nuclear arms race, the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962 served as a critical turning point, revealing the superpowers' reluctance to employ nuclear weapons against one another—primarily due to the fear of catastrophic retaliation. Strategically, military leaders had regarded nuclear weapons as tools for warfare; however, in 1945, US President Harry S. Truman declared that the decision to use such weapons should be political rather than military. This represented a monumental shift in how war decisions were perceived. A notable manifestation of this change was Truman's public dispute with General Douglas MacArthur over the possible use of nuclear weapons during the Korean War, signaling a new era in which elected officials would determine matters of war and peace. Following World War II, the United States enjoyed a brief period as the sole possessor of nuclear weapons until the Soviet Union developed its own in 1949. At that point, Stalin concurred with Truman's perspective and instituted a similar policy regarding nuclear decision-making, enhancing the importance of communication between both powers to prevent escalation into global warfare. After Truman, Eisenhower, who had a military background, embraced the notion that nuclear weapons should be integrated into military strategy as well as policy, endorsing a national security policy called the 'New Look'. This strategy arose partly from the need for cost-efficiency, favoring nuclear weapons and covert operations over conventional military forces. Soviet leader Khrushchev, who took charge during a time of economic challenges within the USSR, sought to reduce military expenditures and proposed the idea of peaceful coexistence. This policy aimed at enabling both the US and the Soviet systems to compete in the global arena without resorting to war. The aftermath of the Cuban Missile Crisis culminated in the signing of the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty in 1963, which obligated the United States and the Soviet Union to halt nuclear testing in the atmosphere, underwater, and in outer space—yet allowed for underground tests. With additional nuclear powers like Britain, France, and China emerging, the superpowers recognized the critical need for continual negotiation to maintain international peace and stability.

3.2: ARMS RACE AND DETENTE

The USA had a very brief period of atomic monopoly that ended

in 1949 with Soviet development of nuclear technology and the successful detonation of its own bomb in August of that year. Stalin agreed with Truman’s assessment of nuclear weapons usage and the Soviets adopted a similar policy regarding decision-making. This made communication between Soviet and American leaders an important component in preventing superpower escalation of global warfare.

Truman was followed by Eisenhower, a military man who in some respects reversed Truman’s ideas. He saw nuclear weapons as an instrument of policy and war, and encouraged his Joint Chiefs of Staff to integrate their use into military strategy. Unlike Truman, Eisenhower's Joint Chiefs planned extensively for total war, including the use

of nuclear weapons. One reason was cost: conventional military

action required a much larger army and that was expensive. Instead, Eisenhower put money into developing American covert operations,

air force and technology through a national security policy termed the ‘New Look’. Khrushchev faced a similar dilemma: when he consolidated power the Soviet Union had existed for nearly 30 years but lagged significantly behind the USA and the West in quality of life. Khrushchev was looking for ways to decrease military spending.

His answer was peaceful coexistence, in which the USA and Soviet systems might compete in the international market or for influence over other countries but they would avoid war as it would mean the destruction of both countries. While not entirely trusting Khrushchev, Eisenhower, and later Kennedy, accepted it and met with Khrushchev to try to keep the international system stable and avoid nuclear warfare. In the aftermath of the Cuban Missile Crisis, the superpowers signed the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty in 1963. According to its terms, the USA and the USSR agreed to cease underwater, space and atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons (leaving underground detonations as the option for testing). However, the USA and the USSR were not the only nuclear powers: Britain developed its own weapons in 1952, followed by France in 1960. The situation became far more volatile in 1964 when the People’s Republic of China also detonated its first nuclear weapons. The superpowers recognized the need to make further agreements.

Détente: This term means reducing tensions between superpowers, especially about nuclear weapons. It was a short but important time when Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev and US President Richard Nixon reached agreements on these issues. The process actually started earlier, back when leaders like Khrushchev and Eisenhower were in charge. The idea of Mutual Assured Destruction (MAD) meant that both powers were so heavily armed that they wouldn’t dare attack each other, as it would lead to mutual destruction. To prevent this, leaders met regularly to talk about important global topics. These meetings began in 1955 in Geneva and usually included other leaders only when necessary. The peak of the nuclear arms race came during the Cuban Missile Crisis, which showed that both superpowers were afraid to use nuclear weapons against each other. US President Truman believed that using these weapons should be a political choice, not just a military decision. This was a significant change, as it meant politicians, not just military leaders, would decide on issues of war and peace. After WWII, the USA had a short time when it was the only country with nuclear weapons until the Soviet Union developed its own bomb in 1949. Stalin agreed that politicians should control nuclear weapon use, which helped prevent conflicts between the USA and the USSR. Truman's successor, Eisenhower, who had a military background, thought nuclear weapons should play a role in policy and military strategy. He focused on cost-cutting and shifted to a strategy called the ‘New Look,’ which emphasized covert operations and nuclear readiness. Khrushchev, the Soviet leader, sought to spend less on the military and suggested peaceful coexistence, where both superpowers could compete without going to war. After the Cuban Missile Crisis, they signed the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty in 1963, agreeing to stop testing nuclear weapons in the air, water, and space, but could still test them underground. As more countries like Britain, France, and China developed nuclear weapons, both superpowers realized they needed to keep negotiating to ensure peace.