Unit 3: Developmental & Learning
3.1 - Themes + Methods in Developmental Psychology
How people grow and change through lives. Focus on how cognitive skills change, and personality traits develop from infancy to old age.
What Developmental Psychologists Study
Chronological Approach: How people develop in a sequence as they age. Different life stages (infancy, childhood, adolescence, adulthood)
Thematic Issue: Focus on specific themes and topics that span across life. Focus on questions, issues that persist. (Ex/ Are our behaviors determines by genetics or environment?)
Stability vs Change: How characteristics remain constant over time while others evolve and change.
Nature vs Nurture: Nature - Hereditary, predisposed the influence traits. Nurture - Environment, external facts.
Continuous vs Discontinuous Development: Continuous - Gradual and smooth development. Discontinuous - Distinct stages, clear transitions. (Vygotsky social-cultural theory, Piaget, Erikson)
Cross-Sectional Research: Different groups of patients at different ages at the same time. Allows to gather data quickly, compare easily.
Physical Changes from Birth to Death
Prenatal Influences on Psych/Physical Development
Prenatal Development - Brain and body go through rapid growth in Germinal, Embryonic, and Fetal Stage.
Teratogens: Substances that can cause birth defects in fetus. Alcohol, drugs, toxins. → fetal alcohol syndrome,
Maternal Illnesses: Any disease a mother experiences during pregnancy that can affect fetus.
Genetic Mutations: Occur spontaneously or be inherited from parents. Effect cognitive development. (Down syndrome)
Motor Skill Milestones/Infant Reflexes
Infant Reflex: Reflexes signal healthy neurological development.
Rooting Reflex: Turns head towards touch,
Sucking Reflex: Automatic sucking
Palmar Grasp: When a finger is placed in baby’s palm, baby will close hand around it. Same with Plantar Grasp - feet.
Babinski Reflex: Sole of baby’s foot is stroked, big toe will move upward.
Gross Motor Skills: Larger movements like crawling and walking.
Fine Motor Skills: Small movements critical for tasks like feeding, drawing.
Visual Cliff Experiment: Insight in when newborn develops depth perception.
Sensitive Periods in Development: Time when brain is primed to develop certain skills.
Physical Development in Adolescence and Adulthood
Primary Sex Characteristics: Related to reproductive system.
Secondary Sex Characteristics: Indirectly related to reproduction like broad shoulders.
3.4 - Theories of Cognitive Development
4 Stages of Cognitive Development - Piaget’s Theory
Sensorimotor Stage: Birth - 2 years old. Learning occurs through senses.
Object Permanence: Object continue to exist even when they’re out of sight.
Pre-Operational Stage: 2 - 7 years old. Develop symbolic thinking, use language, and engage in pretend play.
Anilinism: Human-like qualities given to non-living things. (thoughts, feelings)
Conservation: Struggle with liquid remaining same in different cups.
Egocentrism: Difficulty seeing world from another POV.
Theory of Mind: Understanding that other people have thoughts, feelings.
Concrete Operational Stage: Become more logical, arithmetic operations.
Classification: Organizing objects based on multiple attributes.
Formal Operational Stage: 11 - 12 years old. Gain ability to think abstractly, philosophical questions.
Deductive Reasoning: Starting with a general principle.
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
Children develop skills by interacting with people.
Zone of Proximal Development: Gap between what a learner can do alone, and what they can do with guidance, and what they are not ready for.
Scaffolding: Temporary support from teacher, or parent. As skill increases, guidance decreases.
Crystallized Intelligence/Cognitive Disorders
Crystallized Intelligence: Info already learned (facts, vocab)
Fluid Intelligence: Peaks in adulthood, ability to reason quickly. Declines.
Dementia: memory loss, impaired reasoning, language problems, personality changes. Loss of Functioning.
3.5 - Communication and Language Development
Building Blocks of Language
Phonemes: smallest unit of sound. (ex/ ‘MMM’ sound in mom).
Morphemes: Smallest unit of meaning.
Semantics: Meaning behind word and sentence.
Grammar: Set of rules how words can be combined.
Syntax: Rules for arranging words into sentences.
Vocal Language Stages
Cooing: Soft, repetitive sounds.
Babbling: Combining consonants and vowels. (Baba, gaga)
One-Word Stage: Mom, dad, ball. Represent entire idea.
Holophrases: When a word refers to different objects, people.
Two-Word Stage (Telegraphic) Connect 2+ word phrases together.
Overgeneralization: Applying grammar rules too broadly. (ex/ I goed to the park)
3.6 - Social-Emotional Development
Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory
development happens inside nested layers of environment.
Microsystem: People, groups, that individual has direct interactions with.
Mesosystems: Relationships btw microsystems in life. How different parts of lie interact with each other. (relationship btw family and friends).
Ecosystem: Indirect influences in life. (Political decisions that impact your life).
Macrosystem: Societies, laws, cultural beliefs, customs.
Chronosystem: Changes that occur during life, and timeframe of life.
Parenting Styles / Attachment Styles
Authoritarian parent: Strict rules, little room for discussion; punishments.
Permissive parent: Fewer rules and expectations. Lots of freedom, not many limits on children.
Negligent parent: Uninvolved in children’s lives.
Authoritative parenting: Clear rules, with discussion. Independence while also offering guidance. = Stronger self-esteem, better self-regulation and social skills.
Secure Attachment: Comfortable, explore new palaces with caregiver nearby. They feel safe and supported by caregiver.
Insecure-Avoidant Attachment - avoid or ignore caregiver, show little emotion when they leave
Insecure-Anxious (Ambivalent) Attachment: Overly dependent on parent, show distress when separated. But also resist comfort when they return.
Disorganized Attachment: Experiences inconsistent or frightening caregivers.
Erikson’s Stages of Development
Trust v Mistrust: Infants are dependent on caregivers. Develop trust when needs are met.
Autonomy v Shame/Doubt: Explore independence, start to walk, talk. If encourage independence, they develop autonomy. Overprotective = ashamed.
Initiative v Guilt: Ask questions, if supported in creativity, they develop initiative. If ideas are downplayed, they feel guilt.
Inferiority v Industry: Comparing to peers. When encouraged for work, they develop pride, but if they are criticized they feel inferior.
Identity v Role Confusion: Explores identity. If they have strong sense of self, they are confident in who they are. If not → question role in life.
Intimacy v Isolation: Meaningful relationships, if they find another person they are satisfied.
Generativity v Stagnation: Providing for next generation. Feel useful and accomplished, if they struggle they may feel unproductive.
Integrity v Despair: Reflect on life and accomplishments. Fulfillment if they feel satisfied with life.
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
Preconventional Level (childhood): Decisions based on rewards or avoiding punishment,
Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment Orientation (avoiding punishment).
Stage 2: Self-Interest Orientation (personal benefit).
Conventional Level (Adolescence and childhood): Decisions guided by social expectations, relationships, laws, and societal order.
Stage 3: Interpersonal Accord and Conformity (meeting social expectations).
You volunteer because your friends thing volunteering is good
Stage 4: Authority and Maintaining Social Order (obeying laws and maintaining social order). Believe laws have value. Not speeding.
Postconventional (Advanced moral reasoning): Decisions guided by higher ethical principles and individual rights beyond societal laws.
Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual Rights (social agreements and prioritizing human life).
Participating in a peaceful protest despite knowing there are legal consequences.
Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles (universal ethical principles – justice, human rights).
CIA Agent whistleblower on torture, greater good outweighs personal risk.
3.7 - Classical Conditioning
Conditioning - Forming associations between two events or responses
UCS: Stimulus that naturally triggers a response. (food)
UCR: Natural response without any learning. (salivating)
CS: Previously neutral stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus → learned response. NS + UCS = CS (Bell)
CR: Learned response to CS. (salivation)
Acquisition: Developing a connection between a Neutral stimulus and UCS = acquisition.
One-Trial Learning: Association forms from a single pairing, like taste aversions.
3.8 - Operant Conditioning & Reinforcement Schedules
Law of Effect: Behaviors resulting in positive outcomes = Strengthened. Negative outcomes = weakened.
Reinforcement/Punishment
Positive Reinforcement: adding something desirable to increase behavior occurring.
Negative Reinforcement: removing something unpleasant to increase behavior occurring. (Ex/ buckling seatbelt so noise stops.)
Positive punishment: Adding unpleasant consequence to decrease behavior. (Ex/ Add more chores for breaking rules)
Negative Punishment: Taking away a desirable thing to decrease behavior. (ex/ Phone taken away)
Shaping: Teach complex behavior by rewarding small steps till desired behavior.
Reinforcement Schedules
Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforcement provided every tine correct behavior is preformed.
Partial Reinforcement: Doesn’t occur with every correct behavior. Resistant to extinction.
Fixed-Interval: Reinforcement given after a set amount of time has passed. Not based on how many times behavior is preformed.
Variable-Interval: Reinforcement given after unpredictable amount of time.
Fixed-Ratio: Reinforcement given after specific number of behaviors. High response rate. (free meal after eating 10 times)
Variable-Ratio: Reinforcement given after unpredictable number of correct behaviors. Most resistant to extinction (gambling).
3.9 - Social-Cognitive & Neurological Factors in Development.
Bandura’s Social-Learning Theory: People learn new behaviors by watching or observing others.
Vicarious Conditioning: Learning by watching consequences of behavior.
Vicarious Reinforcement: When an individual sees a model, receive a reward, motivating person to imitate behavior.
Vicarious Punishment: Model gets punished, person avoids preforming same action.
Notes: If you experience the consequence → Operant Conditioning. If you watch someone → Vicarious.
Insight Learning: When there is a sudden solution or realization pops up in mind. Lightbulb moment.
Latent Learning: Learns new info or skills but doesn’t realize it at that time.
Occurs w/o reinforcement and not demonstrated till there is motivation. (Edward Tolman’s Rate maze)