Adams, Bert N. and Sydie, R. A. 2002b. Critical Theory, Marxism, WSA-1-11

This section presents an analysis of criticism and change, focusing on Marxism in the context of the 20th century.
It critiques conservative capitalist theories, particularly functionalism and the critiques offered by theoretical expansions in the works of Luhmann and Giddens.

The two World Wars and the Great Depression contributed to a resurgence in Marxist confidence about the failure of capitalism.
Concurrently, criticisms arose regarding Stalinist socialism in the Soviet Union, questioning its viability as a model for the Marxist ideal.
Key Marxist principles, such as:
- Labor theory of value
- Increasing misery of the poor
- The idea of a final revolution were increasingly scrutinized by both Marxists and bourgeois economists.

Starting in the 1930s, the Frankfurt School began to criticize both capitalism and Marxism.
Leading figures included:
- Max Horkheimer
- T.W. Adorno
- Erich Fromm
- Herbert Marcuse
Rejecting Marxist determinism, they integrated economics with political and psychological questions, expanding the critique of society.

Jurgen Habermas highlighted:
- Crisis of rationality resulting from economic contradictions.
- Crisis of legitimation resulting from loss of popular loyalty to authority.
This culminated in a crisis of motivation, leading to non-involvement or non-commitment within society.

The fall of the Soviet Union and the apparent victory of capitalism raised questions about the future of Marxism.
Key thinkers, including Erik Olin Wright, argue for continuing relevance and critique despite setbacks.
The work of Wright addresses the need to re-evaluate Marxism post-Soviet collapse, maintaining the analytical core of Marxist thought.

Chapter 18 discusses change from a world perspective, addressing:
- The resurgence of evolutionary optimism post-World War II, particularly in the U.S. following the Marshall Plan.
- Immanuel Wallerstein's world-systems theory, which stresses the single global system and critiques simplistic views of global development.
- Theda Skocpol's exploration of conditions creating revolutions and their various outcomes.

Established in 1921 at the University of Frankfurt during a period of political turbulence.
Founded by Felix Weil with an endowment from his father, Hermann Weil, aiming to create an independent Marxist research institution.
Focused on anti-Semitism, social conditions, and cultural analysis of capitalism.

As anti-Semitism surged, research focused on its societal implications and the ethos around race and identity.
The Frankfurt School's relocation to Columbia University in 1934 allowed continued research amidst exile.

This chapter focuses on:
- Max Horkheimer: Advocated for a supradisciplinary social theory integrating philosophy, sociology, economics, and psychology.
- Theodor Adorno: Emphasized the culture industry and its impact on individuality.
- Herbert Marcuse: Focused on liberation through sexual freedom and human potential.
- Erich Fromm: Combined Marxism and psychoanalysis to analyze cultural domination.

Theoretical critiques sought to understand the oppression and offer emancipatory alternatives to societal structures.
Defined the importance of subjective versus objective reason, emphasizing the need to connect facts with social needs rather than adhere strictly to empirical biases.

Reification explains how human-made structures and products can dominate consciousness, masking the inherently social nature of economic forces.
Georg Lukacs first articulated this theory, arguing the necessity for philosophical education to overcome bourgeois ideologies.

Critical theorists critiqued capitalism's evolution into monopoly and state capitalism, emphasizing contradictions within the capitalist system.
Suggested that true emancipation would necessitate revolutionary change facilitated by a reformed understanding of individual and collective identity.

Fromm and Freud’s psychological insights were crucial for understanding the interplay between culture, ideology, and individual consciousness in capitalist societies.
Explored how personality types derived from family dynamics reinforce authoritarianism and concerted social control.

Critical theorists acknowledge class struggles but refuse to analyze them systematically, instead focusing on psychological effects of economic oppression.
Emphasized the role of the family as a psychological unit reinforcing capitalist structures and ideological compliance.

Highlighted how patriarchal structures within the family normalize authoritarianism, impacting the development of individual personalities.
Critiqued the co-optation of women in the labor market, transforming their roles and diminishing the maternal archetype's liberatory potential.

Argued that anti-Semitism and racism function as projections of societal repression.
Conducted significant studies during and after WWII addressing prejudices and their roots within societal contexts, revealing broader patterns of oppression.

The work of other important theorists linked to the Frankfurt Institute continues to expand the understanding of societal issues, integrating insights from sociology, psychology, and cultural studies.