Unit 8 Part 2: Decolonization and New Government Regimes

Context and Impact of the Non-Aligned Movement

• Definition and Goals: The Non-Aligned Movement consisted of countries that sought to remain independent of the two primary superpowers (the United States and the USSR) during the Cold War. These nations fought against the concept of an "inevitable" choice between the two sides, focusing instead on their own independence from colonial rule.
• Connection to Decolonization: The movement was intrinsically linked to the struggle for independence, as participants often sought to distance themselves from the imperialist history of the West while avoiding total reliance on the Soviet bloc.

Systems of Resistance to Colonization and Government Authority

• Nonviolent Resistance (Civil Disobedience): This is defined as the use of peaceful protesting through the deliberate breaking of laws (noncompliance), boycotting, and organized marches.     * Prominent Leaders: The transcript identifies Mohandas Gandhi, Martin Luther King, Jr., and Nelson Mandela as key figures in this tradition.     * Student-Led Protests: Examples include the Kent State protests in the United States and the student marches in France in the year $1968$.
• Violent Resistance: This form of resistance involves armed conflict, guerrilla warfare, and acts of terrorism.     * Regional Examples:         * The Irish Republican Army (IRA) in Northern Ireland.         * Basque Homeland and Freedom (ETA) in Spain.         * The Shining Path in Peru.         * Middle Eastern and African groups including al-Qaeda, Boko Haram, the Islamic State of Iraq/Levant (ISIL), and the Taliban.

Decolonization and Self-Determination in South Asia

• Historical Context of India: India had been a formal British colony since the year $1858$. The movement for decolonization was led by the Indian National Congress and Mohandas Gandhi.
• Factors Leading to Post-WWII Independence: After failed promises following World War I, India sought self-determination after World War II due to several factors:     * British Weakness: Following World War II, Britain was financially and militarily depleted and could no longer effectively suppress independence movements.     * The Royal Indian Navy Revolt ($1946$): A significant internal challenge to British military control.
• The Partition of India ($1947$):     * The Religious Divide: Tensions between Hindu and Muslim groups regarding how to coexist in a free India led to the division of the territory into two independent countries: India (predominantly Hindu) and Pakistan (predominantly Muslim).     * Human Cost: The partition resulted in a mass migration of at least $10,000,000$ people and widespread violence, leading to deaths estimated between $500,000$ and $1,000,000$.
• Modern Geopolitical Tensions: India is categorized as the world’s largest democracy, while Pakistan has historically been ruled by a mix of elected and authoritarian military leaders.
• The Kashmir Conflict: This territory, populated primarily by Muslims but governed by a Hindu leader, remains a flashpoint. As nuclear technology developed, tensions increased. Current control is divided as follows:     * China: $20\%$     * Pakistan: $35\%$     * India: $45\%$

Decolonization and Governance in Africa

• Ghana ($1957$): Formerly a West African colony, it combined with Togoland to become the first country in sub-Saharan Africa to achieve independence in the $20th$ century, with assistance from the United Nations.     * Kwame Nkrumah: The first president, he utilized nationalistic symbols such as a national flag, anthem, and monuments. He moved toward a dictatorial role in $1964$.     * Pan-Africanism: Nkrumah founded the Organization of African Unity (OAU) in $1963$ to promote continental unity.
• Algeria: A North African colony that fought a violent war against France.     * Algerian War for Independence ($1954$): The National Liberation Front (FLN) used guerrilla tactics. President Charles de Gaulle eventually facilitated independence due to local and domestic French pressure.     * Algerian Civil War ($1991$): Following independence, a single-party state was established. Civil war erupted in $1991$ after the FLN cancelled an election they were poised to lose.
• Other African Independence: Nigeria gained independence from the British, while French West African territories like Senegal, Ivory Coast, and Niger also successfully decolonized.

Political Change and Crisis in Egypt

• Background: Egypt achieved semi-independence from the Ottoman Empire in $1922$. The Anglo-Egyptian treaty in $1936$ allowed British troops to remain to protect the Suez Canal.
• Gamal Abdel Nasser: In $1952$, General Nasser overthrew the king and established the Republic of Egypt.     * Policies: Nasser promoted Pan-Arabism and blended Islam with socialism, implementing land reform and the nationalization of banks and businesses.
• The Suez Crisis ($1956$): Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal, which had been built in $1859$ with French and British investment and under a $99$-year lease.     * Military Response: Britain, France, and Israel (which invaded Egypt) opposed the seizure.     * Global Resolution: The United States and the USSR opposed the European military intervention. The United Nations negotiated an agreement making the canal an international waterway under Egyptian sovereignty.

Independence and Conflict in Vietnam and Cambodia

• Vietnam:     * Pre-WWII/WWII: Vietnam was a French colony occupied by Japan during the war.     * Post-War Partition ($1954$): Following a war of independence led by Ho Chi Minh, a treaty divided the country into the communist North and non-communist South.     * Vietnam War: Failed elections in $1956$ led to a war where the North defeated the US-backed South. Communism subsequently spread to Laos and Cambodia. Diplomatic relations with the US were reestablished in the $1980s$.
• Cambodia: Gained independence from France in $1953$.     * Khmer Rouge: A communist guerrilla group led by Pol Pot that overthrew the government. Their leadership caused the death of $\frac{1}{4}$ of the Cambodian population through starvation and purges.     * Transition: Vietnamese troops overthrew Pol Pot in $1977$ and withdrew in $1989$. A $1991$ UN agreement led to democratic elections.

The Creation and Ongoing Conflict of Israel

• The Zionist Movement: Established in the $1890s$ to create a Jewish homeland in response to global oppression.
• The Balfour Declaration: A British document designating Palestine as a "national home" for Jewish people, complicated by Lawrence of Arabia’s simultaneous promise of an independent Arab state.
• Creation of Israel: Following WWII, the UN partitioned Palestine into an Arab section and a Jewish section (Israel).
• Historical Conflicts:     * $1956$: Israel invaded Egypt during the Suez Crisis.     * Six Day War ($1967$): Israel gained the Gaza Strip, West Bank, East Jerusalem, and the Golan Heights.     * Yom Kippur War ($1973$): Egypt and Syria launched a surprise attack on Israel.
• Diplomatic and Current Issues: The Camp David Accords ($1979$), fostered by President Jimmy Carter, brought peace between Egypt and Israel but were rejected by many Arab nations. Internal Palestinian politics are split between Fatah and Hamas.

Communism in China and Transformation in Iran

• Chinese Communist Revolution: Following a civil war between Chiang Kai-shek (Nationalists) and Mao Zedong (Communists), the People’s Republic of China was established in $1949$ due to massive peasant support.     * Great Leap Forward ($1958$): A forced reorganization of land into communes that led to the starvation of $20,000,000$ people.     * Cultural Revolution ($1966$): A purge of anti-communist elements, teachers, and those with Western ties by the "Red Guards."
• Iranian Political Shifts:     * The White Revolution: Muhammad Reza Pahlavi implemented progressive but autocratic reforms (women's suffrage, literacy, and land reform).     * Iranian Revolution ($1979$): Pahlavi was overthrown, and Ayatollah Khomeini established a theocracy governed by the Guardian Council and Shariah law.

Global Land Reform Initiatives

• Venezuela: Redistributed $5,000,000$ acres of land.
• Guatemala: Land reform efforts threatened the United Fruit Company, leading to the overthrow of the government.
• Ethiopia: The overthrow of Haile Selassie resulted from unsuccessful land reforms and his perceived ties to Western interests.
• India: Implemented reforms to protect renters and farmers with mixed results.