Minerals APSC 151 Study Notes

Course Information

  • Course Title: Minerals APSC 151: Earth Systems Engineering

  • Semester: Fall 2025

  • Instructors:

    • Dr. Jennifer Day, PhD, EMBA, PEng, PGeo

    • Dr. Dan Layton-Matthews, PhD (known as DL-M)

    • Dr. Chris Spencer, PhD, PGeo

  • Affiliation: Department of Geological Sciences and Geological Engineering

Housekeeping

  • Labs in APSC 151: Start on Wednesday, Sept 3rd, at 8:30 AM in Miller Hall (Room #20 on campus map).

    • There are 13 lab sections over the next two weeks. Check your scheduling.

    • Groups 08-A to 08-H will meet in Room 106.

    • Groups 08-I to 08-Q will meet in Room 102.

  • How to Check Group Number:

    • Log into onQ

    • Navigate to APSC 151 course page > Main Menu Bar > Communications > Groups

  • Bring a device/laptop to class.

Overview of Minerals

  • Earth Materials: The course focuses on the interesting earth materials surrounding us, with more than 6000 known minerals.

  • Annually, ~50-100 new minerals are discovered.

Mineralogy

  • Definition: The scientific and engineering study of minerals, which began in the 16th century.

  • Key Contributions:

    • 1556: Georgius Agricola published De Re Metallica (On the Nature of Metals), providing the first descriptions of minerals.

    • 1669: Nicholas Steno discovered geometric properties, initiating systematic description of minerals (e.g., Quartz: SiO2).

Mineral Names

  • Origins of Mineral Names:

    • Derived from various languages, properties, places, composition, and people:

    • Languages:

      • German: orthoclase (splits at right angles)

      • Latin: albite (white)

    • Properties:

      • Color: olivine is olive green

    • Places:

      • Skutterudite (Skutterud, Norway)

      • Illite (Illinois, USA)

    • Composition:

      • Chromite (chromium bearing)

      • Borax (contains boron)

    • Notable Individuals:

      • Jimthompsonite (James Thompson)

      • Schwertmannite (Udo Schwertmann)

Definitions

  • Mineral:

    • Naturally occurring

    • Inorganic

    • Solid

    • Ordered internal molecular structure

    • Definite chemical composition

    • Example: Garnet, Ca3Al2(SiO4)3

  • Rock:

    • A solid mass of minerals.

Biogenic Minerals

  • Definition: Minerals created by living organisms. Examples include:

    • Vertebrate bones (Apatite: Ca5(PO4)3(F,Cl,OH))

    • Oyster, mussel, clam shells (Aragonite: CaCO3)

    • Minerals created by bacteria (e.g., Fe Oxide, Aragonite)

    • Human teeth (Apatite)

Composition of Minerals

  • Elements: Basic building blocks of minerals.

    • There are 188 known elements, with 90 being naturally occurring.

Structure of Minerals

  • Crystalline Structure: Most solid materials are crystalline, with an ordered array of atoms bonded chemically.

    • Example: Halite (NaCl)

Polymorphism in Minerals

  • Definition: Polymorph refers to elements that can join in more than one geometric arrangement while maintaining the same chemical composition, leading to different physical properties.

    • Examples:

    • Graphite: Carbon atoms arranged in hexagonal structures.

    • Diamond: Carbon atoms arranged in tetrahedral structures.

Physical Properties of Minerals

  • Key properties include:

    1. Crystal shape (habit)

    2. Luster

    3. Color

    4. Streak

    5. Hardness

    6. Cleavage

    7. Fracture

    8. Specific gravity

    9. Special properties.

Description Methods

  • Physical properties help in describing minerals by various characteristics:

    1. Crystal Shape (Habit): Varies based on elements and arrangement.

    • Influenced by ion size and packing configurations.

    1. Luster: Appearance in reflected light categorized into:

    • Metallic

    • Non-metallic: Descriptors include vitreous, milky, silky, earthy.

    • Examples: Quartz SiO2 (vitreous), Pyrite FeS2 (metallic).

    1. Color: Varies and can help identify minerals when used cautiously.

    • Example: Cu2CO3(OH)2 can be green, yellow, pink, etc.

    • Impurities can cause color variations (e.g., Quartz: clear, white, rose, smoky, purple).

    1. Streak: Color of a mineral in powdered form, obtained by rubbing on a streak plate.

    • Examples: Hematite Fe2O3, Magnetite Fe3O4 yield reddish-brown and black streaks.

    1. Hardness: Measurement of mineral resistance to abrasion or scratching, compared to Mohs scale of hardness.

    2. Cleavage: Tendency to break along planes of weak bonding, producing flat surfaces.

    3. Fracture: Absence of cleavage when a mineral is broken, examples include conchoidal fractures that produce smooth, curved surfaces.

    4. Specific Gravity: Ratio of mineral's weight to equivalent volume of water, ranging approximately between 2.5 and 3.

    5. Special Properties: Includes magnetism, reaction to hydrochloric acid, malleability, double refraction, taste, smell, and elasticity (e.g., Calcite CaCO3).

Mineral Classes

  • Approximately 6000 identified minerals categorized mainly into:

    • Rock-Forming Minerals: Composed of the eight elements constituting over 98% of continental crust:

    • Order of Abundance: Oxygen, Silicon, Aluminum, Iron, Calcium, Sodium, Potassium, and Magnesium.

  • The Silicates: Most common mineral group characterized by the silicon-oxygen tetrahedron as the basic unit.

    • Examples:

    • Isolated: Olivine (Mg, Fe)2SiO4

    • Chains: Pyroxene (single), Amphibole (double).

    • Ferromagnesian Silicates: Containsions of iron and/or magnesium; examples include Olivine, Pyroxenes, Amphiboles, Biotite, and Garnet.

    • Nonferromagnesian Silicates: Contains aluminum, potassium, calcium, sodium; examples are Muscovite, K-feldspar (orthoclase), Plagioclase, and Quartz.

    • Non-silicate Mineral Groups: Include Oxides, Hydroxides, Sulphides, Sulphates, Native Elements (e.g., Gold), Halides, Carbonates, and Phosphates.

Applications and Implications

  • Engineering Connections: Discussion of career paths such as involvement with NASA and geological engineering applications impacting extraterrestrial materials, resource evaluation for lunar and Martian colonization requirements, etc.