Comprehensive Summary of 19th Century European History

The French Revolution and the Rise of the Republic

• The Bastille: The French people consider the attack on the Bastille prison on July $14$, $1789$, as a day of freedom and a national day.
• The National Convention: One of the first decisions of the French National Convention was the abolition of the monarchy and the declaration of the Republic.
• Constitutional Development: The first constitution of the French Revolution was issued in September $1791$. It established a "Constitutional Monarchy" and divided citizens into two categories, active and passive, based on the amount of direct taxes they paid to the state.
• The First Republic: The First French Republic was officially declared in September $1792$.
• Execution of the Monarchy: King Louis XVI was executed on January $21$, $1793$.
• The Reign of Terror: After the declaration of the Republic, the "Jacobins" led by Robespierre took control. They established the "Committee of Public Safety" to confront internal and external threats. This era became known as the "Reign of Terror."
• End of the Terror: The period of Terror ended with a historic event in July $1794$, known as the Thermidorian Reaction, which resulted in the overthrow and execution of Robespierre.

The Era of Napoleon Bonaparte

• Origins: Napoleon Bonaparte was born in the city of Ajaccio, Corsica on August $15$, $1769$.
• Military Rise: Napoleon oversaw the end of the Siege of Toulon in December $1793$, which resulted in a decisive victory for French revolutionary forces.
• The Consulate: Due to internal crises facing the Directory government, Napoleon seized power in a coup in November $1799$, establishing the "Provisional Triple Consulate."
• Civil Code: The French Civil Code (Napoleonic Code) was issued in $1804$.
• Imperial Coronation: Pope Pius VII crowned Napoleon as Emperor of France in December $1804$.
• King of Italy: Napoleon declared himself King of Italy in $1805$.
• Key Battles and Treaties:
  • Invasion of Egypt ($1798$): Napoleon led a campaign to Egypt to disrupt British interests.
  • Battle of Arcole ($1796$): France defeated Austria.
  • Battle of Abukir ($1798$): The British fleet defeated the French fleet in August.
  • Treaty of Lunéville (February $1801$): Ended the war between France and Austria and confirmed Napoleon's gains in Italy.
  • Peace of Amiens (March $1802$): A temporary peace treaty signed between France and Britain.
  • Battle of Trafalgar (October $21$, $1805$): The British fleet defeated the combined French and Spanish fleets.
  • Battle of Austerlitz and Treaty of Pressburg (December $1805$): Napoleon imposed this treaty on Austria, leading to the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire.
  • Berlin Decrees ($1806$): Napoleon prohibited European countries from trading with Britain.
  • Treaty of Tilsit (July $1807$): Napoleon and Tsar Alexander I divided Europe into French and Russian spheres of influence.
  • Battle of Bailén (July $1808$): A battle between French and Spanish forces.
  • Russian Campaign ($1812$): Napoleon entered Russia in September, leading to a catastrophic retreat.
  • Battle of the Nations (Leipzig, October $1813$): The Sixth Coalition defeated Napoleon.
  • Fall of Paris: European armies entered Paris on March $31$, $1814$.
  • Battle of Waterloo (June $1815$): Napoleon's final defeat by the Seventh Coalition.
• Diplomatic Relations: Napoleon signed the Concordat in July $1801$ with the Church to organize relations with the French state and restore religious and political stability. Talleyrand served as his Foreign Minister.

The Vienna System and European Conservatism

• The Congress of Vienna ($1815$): Held to reorganize Europe post-Napoleon.
• Klemens von Metternich: An Austrian leader and the principal architect of the European balance of power system. He was a major advocate for conservative thought and monarchical systems.
• Charles-Maurice de Talleyrand: The French Foreign Minister who represented France at the Congress of Vienna and successfully restored France to the ranks of major powers.
• Robert Stewart, Viscount Castlereagh: The British Foreign Minister who helped draw the policy of European balance and participated in the Congresses of Vienna and Aix-la-Chapelle.
• Duke of Richelieu: A prominent French statesman after the Napoleonic Wars who reorganized French affairs and narrowed the gap with conservative European powers.
• The German Confederation: Established in $1815$ after the Congress of Vienna, it consisted of $39$ German states under the presidency of the German Diet (Frankfurt Diet). It was led by Austria and aimed to maintain the conservative order and prevent nationalist movements.
• European Alliances:
  • Holy Alliance (September $1815$): Between Russia, Prussia, and Austria.
  • Quadruple Alliance (October $1815$): Between Russia, Prussia, Austria, and Britain.
  • League of the Three Emperors ($1873$): An alliance between Germany, Russia, and Austria-Hungary to maintain European peace and face revolutionary movements.
• Key Congresses:
  • Aix-la-Chapelle ($1818$): Re-admitted France to the European alliance.
  • Troppau (October $1820$): Agreed on military intervention to suppress revolutions.
  • Laibach (January $1821$): Focused on intervention against the revolution in Italy.
  • Verona (October $1822$): Focused on French intervention in Spain.

The Industrial Revolution

• Origins: The Industrial Revolution began in England (Britain).
• Foundational Factors: The availability of coal and iron, the movement of inventions, and the emergence of the factory system.
• Key Inventions and Figures:
  • James Watt: Inventor of the steam engine.
  • Louis Pasteur: Scientist who discovered germs.
• Economic Impacts:
  • Emergence of the capitalist economic system.
  • Shift from human labor to machines, especially in agriculture.
  • Increase in urban populations due to migration from rural areas (e.g., the growth of the industrial city of Manchester).
  • Economic competition between European nations due to increased production.
• Social Impacts:
  • Emergence of a new social class: the working class (Proletariat).
  • Social problems including labor exploitation and poor working conditions.
• New Transportation: The appearance of the train and the steamboat.
• Economic and Social Theories:
  • Adam Smith: Scottish economist known for "The Wealth of Nations." He founded classical economics and advocated for economic freedom and the free market ("invisible hand").
  • Robert Owen: Scottish industrialist and social reformer who focused on improving workers' lives and founding model communities based on cooperation.
  • Karl Marx: German philosopher and founder of Communist thought. He focused on historical materialism, class struggle, and the critique of capitalism.
  • Friedrich Engels: German thinker who co-founded Marxism with Marx, focusing on the materialist interpretation of history.

Italian and German Unification

• Italian Unification (Risorgimento):
  • Giuseppe Garibaldi: Leader of the "Red Shirts" who liberated Southern Italy and Sicily from Bourbon rule, handing his victories to King Victor Emmanuel II to achieve unity in $1861$.
  • Count Cavour: Played the primary political and diplomatic role in uniting Italy.
  • Obstacles: Austria was the primary obstacle to unification in the North.
  • Carbonari: A secret society in Naples that aimed to resist absolute rule and demand constitutions and national liberties.
  • Naples Revolution: A national revolution broke out in Italy in February $1831$.
• German Unification:
  • Otto von Bismarck: The lead military and political figure who orchestrated German unification in $1871$.
  • King Wilhelm I: The first Emperor of the German Empire after its unification in $1871$, known for military strength.
  • Prussian Hegemony: The Franco-Prussian War ($1870$-$1871$) was decisive for Prussian dominance. It included the Battle of Sedan (September $1870$), where Napoleon III was defeated and captured.
  • Treaty of Frankfurt (May $1871$): Signed between France and Prussia following the war.
  • Obstacles: Austria was the main obstacle to German unification in the North.
  • Battle of Sadowa ($1866$): A crushing Prussian victory over the Austrian Empire.

The Eastern Question and the Crimean War

• Definition: The Eastern Question refers to the conflict between European powers over the legacy of the declining Ottoman Empire.
• Russian Objectives: To reach "warm waters" through the Straits.
• The Crimean War ($1853$-$1856$):
  • Causes: Conflict over the protection of holy sites in Palestine within the framework of the Eastern Question.
  • Theater of Operations: The Crimean Peninsula was the primary military theater.
  • Technological Milestones: The first war to use modern technology like the telegraph (electric lightning).
  • Outcome: The Treaty of Paris ($1856$) ended the war, imposing restrictions on Russian influence in the Black Sea and weakening Russia's position in the European balance of power.
• Russian Policies and Figures:
  • Peter the Great: Ruled from $1682$ to $1725$.
  • Tsar Alexander I: Reigned from $1801$ to $1825$.
  • Grigori Rasputin: A mystic monk who gained influence in the Tsarist court, negatively impacting the reputation of the regime before the revolution.
  • Naval Defeat: The Russian fleet suffered a massive defeat by the Japanese navy in $1905$.
• The Balkan Crisis:
  • Greek Revolution (Morea) against Ottoman rule began in $1821$, leading to Greek independence in $1832$ after the Battle of Navarino ($1827$).
  • Treaty of San Stefano ($1878$): Ended the Russo-Ottoman War of $1877$-$1878$.
  • Congress of Berlin ($1878$): Convened by European powers to solve Balkan problems and modify the San Stefano provisions.

Philosophers, Political Movements, and Historical Milestones

• Political Philosophy:
  • Jean-Jacques Rousseau: Author of "The Social Contract."
  • Montesquieu: Author of "The Spirit of the Laws."
  • Voltaire: Author of "Letters on the English."
  • Burlamaqui: A philosopher whose ideas stood against absolute rule in Europe.
  • Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel: German philosopher who established dialectical philosophy.
  • Niccolo Machiavelli: Italian thinker, author of "The Prince," focusing on realpolitik and the maintenance of power.
  • Friedrich Nietzsche: German philosopher who critiqued traditional morality and religion, proposing the concepts of "Will to Power" and the "Übermensch."
• Monarchical Transitions in France:
  • July Revolution ($1830$): Ended the rule of the House of Bourbon (specifically King Charles X / Count of Artois) and began the constitutional monarchy.
  • Louis Philippe: Took power after the $1830$ revolution until his fall in $1848$.
  • Second Republic: Declared in February $1848$. Napoleon III served as its first president before declaring himself Emperor in $1852$.
• International Relations:
  • Monroe Doctrine ($1823$): Announced by US President James Monroe, rejecting European interference in the Americas in exchange for US non-interference in Europe.
  • Simon Bolivar: The national leader and "Liberator" of Latin America from Spanish colonialism.
  • Sinn Féin: An Irish national political party founded in the early $20$th century seeking independence from Britain.
  • Hünkâr İskelesi Treaty ($1833$): A treaty between the Ottomans and Russia against Muhammad Ali.
• Additional Historic Wars:
  • War of Spanish Succession ($1701$-$1714$): Ended with the Treaty of Utrecht.
  • War of Austrian Succession ($1740$-$1748$): Ended with the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle.
  • Seven Years War ($1756$-$1763$): Between France and Britain, ended with the Treaty of Paris.
• Key Global Dates:
  • Belgian Independence: $1830$.
  • Establishment of the Soviet Union: $1922$.