BIO 168 Comprehensive Final Exam Notes

Unit 1 – Foundations of Anatomy & Physiology

Complementarity of Structure & Function

  • Core principle: the shape of a body part determines what it can do.

    • A structure’s anatomy (morphology, material, spatial relationships) directly enables its physiology (task, job, role).

  • Canonical examples discussed this semester

    • Alveoli of lungs

    • Microscopic, thin-walled, grape-like sacs ⇒ enormous surface area ✚ minimal diffusion distance ⇒ fast gas exchange.

    • Villi + microvilli of small intestine

    • Finger-like & membrane-fold extensions ⇒ expand absorptive area ⇒ efficient nutrient uptake.

    • Nephron loop (Loop of Henle)

    • Counter-current, selectively permeable limbs ⇒ urine concentration.

    • Long neurites of motor neurons

    • Myelinated axons spanning ≈1 m ⇒ rapid action-potential conduction to skeletal muscles.

    • Bone trabeculae

    • Lattice arrangement along stress lines ⇒ lightweight yet strong support.

Overview of Organ-System Functions & Overlap

  • Integumentary – protection, thermoregulation, vitamin D synthesis.

  • Skeletal – support, leverage, hematopoiesis, mineral storage, acid-base buffering.

  • Muscular – movement, posture, heat production, venous return aid.

  • Nervous – fast electrical coordination, cognition; integrates with endocrine.

  • Endocrine – slower chemical coordination via hormones; maintains long-term homeostasis.

  • Cardiovascular – transport of blood, gases, nutrients, wastes, hormones; thermoregulation.

  • Lymphatic/Immune – tissue fluid return, lipid absorption, immune defense.

  • Respiratory – gas exchange, pH regulation (via \mathrm{CO_2}), vocalization.

  • Digestive – ingestion → absorption → defecation; liver regulates blood chemistry.

  • Urinary – blood filtration, electrolyte & water balance, pH regulation, RBC production (EPO).

  • Reproductive – gamete production, sex hormone secretion.

  • Functional overlap examples

    • Skeletal + muscular + nervous ⇒ movement.

    • Respiratory + urinary + blood buffering ⇒ \text{blood pH} control.

    • Integumentary + cardiovascular ⇒ thermoregulation (vasodilation/sweating).

Homeostasis

  • Definition: maintenance of a stable internal environment within a narrow physiological range.

  • Purpose: optimize enzymatic activity, cellular function, survival.

  • Components of a feedback system

    • Variable (factor regulated) → receptor (sensor) → control center → effector → response.

  • Negative feedback

    • Response opposes initial deviation.

    • Examples: blood glucose (insulin / glucagon), blood pressure (baroreceptor reflex), body temp (sweating / shivering).

  • Positive feedback

    • Response amplifies deviation until climactic event; then system resets.

    • Examples: labor contractions (oxytocin), platelet plug formation, action potential upstroke.

Anatomical Position & Terminology

  • Body erect, feet slightly apart, palms forward, thumbs lateral, eyes forward.

  • Provides standard reference for describing locations (e.g., “the heart is medial to the lungs”).

  • Used in

    • Dissection orientation, imaging interpretation, injury documentation.

Levels of Structural Organization

  • \text{Chemical} \rightarrow \text{Organelle} \rightarrow \text{Cell} \rightarrow \text{Tissue} \rightarrow \text{Organ} \rightarrow \text{Organ System} \rightarrow \text{Organism}

Body Planes & Sections

  • Sagittal (divides body into right/left parts: mid-sagittal or median if exactly in midline; para-sagittal if off-center); Frontal/Coronal; Transverse/Axial; Oblique.

  • Dissection: correctly locate pathologies (e.g., a “frontal section through the brain shows both cerebral hemispheres”).

Body Cavities, Linings, Organs

  • Dorsal

    • Cranial (brain) — meninges; Vertebral (spinal cord) — meninges.

  • Ventral

    • Thoracic

    • Pleural (lungs) — pleurae.

    • Pericardial (heart) — pericardium.

    • Abdominopelvic

    • Abdominal (liver, stomach, spleen…); Pelvic (bladder, reproductive organs) — peritoneum.

  • Diaphragm separates thoracic & abdominopelvic cavities.

9 Abdominal Regions / 4 Quadrants

  • Mid-clavicular lines + subcostal & transtubercular lines.

    1. R/L Hypochondriac – liver, spleen.

    2. Epigastric – stomach.

    3. R/L Lumbar – ascending/descending colon.

    4. Umbilical – small intestine.

    5. R/L Iliac – cecum, sigmoid colon.

    6. Hypogastric – bladder, uterus.

  • Quadrants: RUQ, LUQ, RLQ, LLQ.

Directional & Regional Terms

  • Superior: Towards the head or upper part of a structure.

  • Inferior: Away from the head or towards the lower part of a structure.

  • Anterior: Towards the front of the body.

  • Posterior: Towards the back of the body.

  • Medial: Towards the midline of the body.

  • Lateral: Away from the midline of the body.

  • Proximal: Closer to the origin of the body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk.

  • Distal: Further from the origin of the body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk.

  • Superficial: Towards or at the body surface.

  • Deep: Away from the body surface, more internal.

  • Regional examples revisited

    • Frontal bone (skull), frontal lobe (cerebrum), frontal suture.

Fluids & Membranes

  • Mucus – glycoprotein-rich; secreted by mucous membranes lining body openings (respiratory, GI) → traps particles, lubricates.

  • Serous fluid – watery filtrate of blood; between parietal/visceral layers (pleura, pericardium, peritoneum) → reduces friction.

  • Synovial fluid – viscous (hyaluronic acid) within synovial joints, tendon sheaths → lubricates, nourishes articular cartilage.

Unit 2 – Chemistry for A&P

Blood pH

  • Normal arterial: 7.35\text{–}7.45 ⇒ slightly basic.

Electrolytes

  • Definition: ions that dissociate & conduct electricity in solution.

  • Key blood electrolytes & roles

    • \text{Na}^+ – osmotic balance, action potentials.

    • \text{K}^+ – membrane potential, cardiac rhythm.

    • \text{Ca}^{2+} – muscle contraction, NT release, clotting.

    • \text{Cl}^- – HCl formation, osmolarity.

    • \text{HCO_3}^- – major blood buffer.

Macronutrients

  • Carbohydrates – monomers: monosaccharides; energy (4 kcal/g); 45–65 % of calories.

  • Lipids – glycerol + fatty acids; energy storage, cell membranes (9 kcal/g); 20–35 %.

  • Proteins – amino acids; structure, enzymes, hormones (4 kcal/g); 10–35 %.

Unit 3 – The Cell

Cell Extensions

  • Microvilli – actin core; ↑ surface area; e.g., enterocytes.

  • Cilia – microtubules (9+2); rhythmic movement; e.g., respiratory epithelium.

  • Flagella – long singular cilium; propulsion; e.g., sperm.

Membrane Transport

  • Passive (no ATP): diffusion, facilitated diffusion (channels / carriers), osmosis, filtration.

  • Active (ATP): primary pumps (\text{Na}^+\,/\,\text{K}^+-ATPase), secondary, vesicular (endo-, exo-, transcytosis).

  • Active used when moving against gradient, large molecules, bulk transport.

Osmosis & Tonicity

  • Isotonic: no net water movement; RBC normal.

  • Hypotonic (solution): lower solute → water enters cells → lysis.

  • Hypertonic: higher solute → water exits → crenation.

  • Osmometer: solvent (water) passes through semipermeable membrane toward higher solute conc.; solute stays.

Solute vs Solvent

  • Solute: dissolved substance; Solvent: dissolving medium (water in biology).

Mitosis Phases

  • Prophase – chromatin → chromosomes, spindle forms.

  • Metaphase – chromosomes align at equator.

  • Anaphase – sister chromatids separate.

  • Telophase – chromosomes decondense, nuclear envelope reforms.

  • Cytokinesis – cleavage furrow splits cytoplasm.

Amitotic Cells

  • Permanently lose ability to divide; e.g., neurons, cardiac myocytes.

DNA vs RNA

  • DNA: double helix, deoxyribose, thymine, nucleus; genetic storage.

  • RNA: single strand, ribose, uracil; mRNA (template), tRNA (bring aa), rRNA (ribosome).

Transcription vs Translation

  • Transcription (nucleus): DNA → mRNA via RNA polymerase.

  • Translation (cytoplasm/ribosome): mRNA codons → amino-acid chain using tRNA anticodons.

Unit 4 – Histology

Four Primary Tissues

  1. Epithelial – covering & lining; avascular, polar, fast mitosis.

  2. Connective – support; cells + extracellular matrix; variable vascularity.

  3. Muscle – movement; excitable, contractile.

  4. Nervous – control; neurons & neuroglia; excitability.

Protein Fibers

  • Collagen – strong, resist tension.

  • Elastic – stretch & recoil.

  • Reticular – delicate networks.

  • Present chiefly in connective tissue.

Lumen

  • Interior space of tubular organ (blood vessel, intestine, gland duct). Epithelia line lumens.

Unit 5 – Integumentary System

Layers

  • Epidermis – keratinized stratified squamous epithelium; cells: keratinocytes, melanocytes, Langerhans, Merkel.

  • Dermis – connective tissue (papillary areolar + reticular dense irregular); houses blood vessels, nerves, glands, hair.

  • Hypodermis – adipose + areolar; anchors skin, insulates.

Cross-System Overlap

  • Skeletal: vitamin D from skin ⇒ calcium absorption for bone.

  • Muscular: shivering (arrector pili) & facial muscles attach to dermis.

  • Nervous: cutaneous receptors → sensation; thermoregulatory reflexes.

Repair Mechanisms

  • Inflammation → clot → granulation tissue → regeneration / fibrosis.

Unit 6 – Skeletal System

Functions

  • Support, protection, movement (with muscles), mineral & lipid storage, blood cell formation, hormone production (osteocalcin).

Calcium & Vitamin D

  • Dietary Ca: dairy, leafy greens. RDA ≈ 1000\,\mathrm{mg} adults.

  • Vitamin D: sunlight, fatty fish; RDA ≈ 600\,\mathrm{IU} (15 µg).

  • Needed for bone mineralization, muscle & nerve function.

Bone Markings

  • Projections (tubercle, spine), depressions (fossa), openings (foramen), etc.

Bones & Muscles

  • Longest bone: femur. Smallest bones: auditory ossicles (malleus, incus, stapes).

  • Naming by region: temporalis (temporal bone), brachialis (arm), gluteus (buttock).

Bone Count

  • Adult ≈ 206 bones. Infant has more; fusion (fontanelles, epiphyses) reduces number.

Unit 7 – Muscular System

tell me miscle types and where thye are found
Muscle Naming Themes

  • Location (frontalis), shape (deltoid), size (gluteus maximus), direction (rectus abdominis), number of heads (biceps), action (flexor carpi).

Connective Attachments

  • Tendon – dense regular CT; muscle ↔ bone.

  • Ligament – dense regular CT; bone ↔ bone.

  • Aponeurosis – broad flat tendon (e.g., epicranial).

Unit 8 – Nervous System

Divisions & Functions

  • CNS (brain + spinal cord) – integration.

  • PNS – cranial & spinal nerves; communication.

    • Sensory (afferent) – somatic & visceral.

    • Motor (efferent) – somatic (skeletal muscle) & autonomic.

Autonomic Branches

  • Sympathetic – fight/flight; thoracolumbar; norepinephrine.

  • Parasympathetic – rest/digest; craniosacral; acetylcholine.

Receptors

  • Mechanoreceptor, baroreceptor (pressure), thermoreceptor, photoreceptor, chemoreceptor, nociceptor.

Brain Structure Functions (selected)

  • Cerebrum – conscious thought, memory.

  • Thalamus – relay station.

  • Hypothalamus – autonomic control, biologic clock (suprachiasmatic nucleus).

  • Brainstem

    • Midbrain – reflexes (visual/auditory).

    • Pons – bridge, respiration.

    • Medulla oblongata – vital reflexes (cardiac, vasomotor, respiratory).

  • Cerebellum – coordination, balance.

  • Limbic system – emotions, memory (hippocampus, amygdala).

Plexuses

  • Network of nerves (e.g., brachial) → redundancy, coordinated innervation.

Fear & Fight/Flight

  • Amygdala activates hypothalamus → sympathetic output.

Fluids

  • Plasma – blood; transport.

  • CSF – produced by choroid plexus: lateral ventricles → interventricular foramina → 3rd → cerebral aqueduct → 4th → apertures → subarachnoid space → arachnoid granulations → dural sinuses.

Endocrine vs Nervous

  • Endocrine: hormones, slow, long-lasting, bloodstream.

  • Nervous: electrical, fast, short-lived, synapses.

Cranial Nerves (S: sensory, M: motor, B: both)

1 Olfactory (S) – smell
2 Optic (S) – vision
3 Oculomotor (M) – eye movement, pupil constriction
4 Trochlear (M) – superior oblique
5 Trigeminal (B) – facial sensation, mastication
6 Abducens (M) – lateral rectus
7 Facial (B) – facial expression, taste, glands
8 Vestibulocochlear (S) – hearing, balance
9 Glossopharyngeal (B) – taste, carotid BP, swallowing
10 Vagus (B) – main parasympathetic nerve; viscera
11 Accessory (M) – SCM & trapezius
12 Hypoglossal (M) – tongue movement

Eye & Ear Structures

  • Eye: cornea → anterior chamber → pupil → lens → retina (photoreceptors: rods/cones).

  • Ear: outer (pinna, canal) → tympanic membrane → ossicles → oval window → cochlea (organ of Corti) / vestibular apparatus.

Sleep Stages

  • NREM 1–4 (deepest = 4 → growth hormone release).

  • REM – dreaming, memory consolidation.

  • Adequate sleep → tissue repair, learning reinforcement.