Indian Knowledge Systems – Core Review

Ayurveda & Medicine

• Ayurveda = holistic science of life: $Ayu$ (life) + $Veda$ (knowledge)

• Pillars: Indian medical science, medicinal herbs, $nadi$ (pulse) diagnosis

• Pulse exam (nadi pariksha): $3$ fingers on radial artery → reads $28$+ pulse attributes

• Health concepts: channels – $srotas$ (organ pathways), $sira$ (veins), $dhamani$ (arteries), $nadi$ (energy flow)

• Disease links to imbalance in cellular energy; early recognition of psychosomatic disorders

Vedas & Origins of Indian Medicine

• Ayurveda classed as Upa-Veda of Atharva Veda (c. $1500$–$800$ BCE)

• Vedas cite gods as physicians; dual medical systems: charms vs drugs

• Early taxonomy: $5$ disease classes → wind/water/fire (doshas), spirits, worms, sorcery, hereditary

• Knowledge of micro-organisms (Adrishya krimi) & sunlight sterilisation noted

Mind–Body Concepts

• Mental attributes: consciousness, identity, field-like nature, energy, immaterial link to soul

• Mind precedes matter; body = gross image of mind ("mind-over-matter")

• Every physical illness has psychological factors (fear, anger, greed, pride, jealousy, grief)

• Righteous living (courage, self-control) promotes health

Spiritual Practices

• Yogasana, pranayama, meditation beneficial yet intended for spiritual liberation only

• Scriptures warn: do not use practices solely to cure illness or seek "peace of mind"; serenity is by-product

Archaeological Evidence

• Dental drilling (Baluchistan) $9000$ y old; trepanation (Mehrgarh/Harappa) $2300$ BCE; prosthetic eye $2800$ BCE

Dissemination & Modern Research

• Greek links (Pythagoras, Democritus); Hippocratic four-element model mirrors doshas

• Roman trade & Dioscorides’ Materia Medica document Indian herbs

• ICMR Composite Drug Research Scheme: $9$ circuits; units for pharmacognosy, chemistry, pharmacology, Ayurvedic & modern clinical study

Alchemy

• Pre-Vedic chemical knowledge; initial goal: elixir for longevity, later transmutation

• Tantric texts (e.g., $12$-cent. Rasārṇava) formalise alchemy

• Focus on medicinal mineral preparations; mercury less central than in China

• Gunpowder components (saltpetre, sulfur, charcoal) recorded $9$–$11$ cent.

Mathematics

• Sulbasutras (~$800$ BCE): Pythagorean theorem, surd approximations

• Decimal place-value & Brahmi numerals (>$3$ cent. BCE); zero formalised by Brahmagupta ($7$ cent.)

• Brahmagupta: quadratic solutions, rules for $0$ and negatives (debts/fortunes)

• Bhāskara ($12$ cent.): early calculus concepts, Diophantine solutions

• Kerala School (Mādhava $14$ cent.): infinite series for $\pi$, power series of trig functions, π to $11$ decimals

Indian Logic & Philosophy

• Epistemological divide: Astik (Veda-accepting) vs Nastik (Veda-rejecting)

Astik schools

• Nyaya (Gautama): $4$ pramanas – perception, inference, comparison, verbal testimony

• Vaisesika: atomism; $5$ elements (earth, water, fire, air, ether)

• Sankhya: dualism of $purusa$ (self) & $prakrti$ (matter)

• Yoga (Patanjali): $8$-fold path (yama → samadhi)

• Purva-Mimansa & Uttara-Mimansa (Vedanta): ritual inquiry vs metaphysical Brahman

Nastik schools

• Buddhism: $4$ Noble Truths, $8$-fold path to Nirvana

• Jainism: pillars – ahimsa, anekantavada, aparigraha, asceticism

• Charvaka: materialism, only perception valid

• Ajivika & Ajnana: determinism & skepticism

Arthashastra – Art of Governance

• Kautilya (Chanakya), $4$ cent. BCE; $15$ books, $150$ chapters, $6000$ shlokas

• State wealth = territory + subjects; covers economy, taxation, espionage, diplomacy, military

• Emphasises internal security, spy network, realpolitik; ends justify means

• $4$ warfare types:

  1. $Mantrayuddha$ – diplomatic

  2. $Prakasayuddha$ – open battle

  3. $Kutayuddha$ – concealed/guerrilla

  4. $Gudayuddha$ – clandestine/silent

• Calls for civil control of army; stresses leadership traits & assessment of $8$ strategic factors before war

• Principles remain relevant to modern statecraft and strategy