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IDENTIFICATION PART 1: ANTHROPOMETRY AND RACE

• Corpus Delicti: Also known as the "Body of Essence" or "Essence of Crime." It refers to the objective proof that a crime has been committed. It includes the body of the victim, weapons of offense found near or in the body, and photographs of the deceased showing fatal injuries.

• Components of Identification: Information required includes age, sex, race, religion, reason/motive, source of evidence (dead body is the most important), and crime scene evidence.

• Identification Marks: These include external peculiarities (moles, scars), general development, complexion, stature, anthropometric measurements, fingerprints (Galton system), foot-prints (Podogram), and teeth.

RACIAL IDENTIFICATION AND CEPHALIC INDICES

• Race Categories:

  • Negroid: Africans, Aryans.

  • Mongoloid: Japanese, Chinese.

  • Caucasoid: Europeans.

• Cephalic Index: An index of skull bone calculated as follows:     $\text{Cephalic Index} = \frac{\text{Max. Breadth of skull}}{\text{Length of skull}} \times 100$

• Types of Cephalic Indices:

  • Dolichocephalic: Value between $70$ and $74.9$. Found in Negroids and Pure Aryans.

  • Mesocephalic: Value between $75$ and $79.9$. Found in Indians and Europeans.

  • Brachycephalic: Value between $80$ and $84.9$. Found in Mongoloids. Mnemonic: M-ICE (Mongoloids, Indians, Chinese, Europeans). This type is often due to the early fusion of the coronal suture.

OTHER ANTHROPOMETRIC INDICES

• Brachial Index (Upper Limb Index):     $\text{BI} = \frac{\text{Length of Radius}}{\text{Length of Humerus}} \times 100$

• Crural Index (Lower Limb Index):     $\text{CI} = \frac{\text{Length of Tibia}}{\text{Length of Femur}} \times 100$

• Intermembral Index:     $\text{IMI} = \frac{\text{Length of Humerus} + \text{Radius}}{\text{Length of Tibia} + \text{Femur}} \times 100$

RACIAL CHARACTERISTICS IN ANATOMY

• Orbit and Palate:

  • Negroid: Square orbit, Rectangular palate.

  • Mongoloid (GOL = Round): Round orbit, Round palate.

  • Caucasian: Triangular orbit, Triangular palate.

• Teeth:

  • Caucasian: Carabelli cusp found on the maxillary molar.

  • Mongoloid: Shovel-shaped incisors, Enamel pearls (pre-molar), and Taurodontism (Bull tooth).

  • Negro: More cusps and specific absence of the 3rd molar.

• Hair Features:

  • Caucasian: Round-oval cross-section, thin cuticle, fragmented medulla.

  • Mongoloid: Cylindrical/Round cross-section, thick cuticle, non-fragmented medulla.

  • Negro: Elliptical cross-section, fragmented or absent medulla.

SEXUAL DIFFERENTIATION

• Methods: External morphology, sex chromatin analysis, sexing of skeletal remains, and gonadal biopsy (the confirmatory method).

• Sex Chromatin (Barr Body):

  • Present in somatic cells (buccal mucosa, hair follicle).

  • Appearance: Plano-convex mass.

  • N (number of Barr bodies) = X chromosome count - 1.

  • Females: $20-80\%$. Males: $0-4\%$.

  • False Positive: Klinefelter syndrome. False Negative: Turner syndrome.

• Davidson-Smith Body:

  • An extra lobe in neutrophils with a "drumstick" appearance.

  • Females: $6\%$. Males: Absent.

  • Discovered by Prof. William Mackay Davidson (Scottish Pathologist).

• Reactions for Sexing:

  • Feulgen Reaction: For the X chromosome (Stain: Acriflavin; Color: Yellow).

  • Quinacrine Reaction: For the Y chromosome (Fluorescent appearance).

SKELETAL SEXING ACCURACY (KROGMAN TABLE)

• Entire skeleton: $100\%$

• Pelvis and skull combined: $98\%$

• Pelvis (single best bone): $95\%$

• Skull: $90\%$

• Long bones: $80\%$

MALE VS FEMALE SKELETON COMPARISON

• Bones: Males have large, heavy bones; Females have small, light bones.

• Skull Ridges: Glabella and supraorbital ridges are more prominent in males; frontal/parietal eminences are more prominent in females.

• Orbit/Zygomatic Arch: Males have square orbits and vertical zigomatic arches; Females have round orbits and vertical zigomatic arches.

• Palate: U-shaped in males; Parabolic in females.

• Mandible Angle: $<125^{\circ}$ (less obtuse) in males; $>125^{\circ}$ (more obtuse) in females.

• Foramen Shape (Obturator): Oval in males; Triangular in females.

• Sub-Pubic Angle: $70-75^{\circ}$ in males; $>90^{\circ}$ in females.

• Pelvis Inlet: Heart-shaped in males; Round in females.

• Pubis/Ischium: Pubis length is shorter in males than the ischium.

PELVIC INDICES

• Sciatic Notch (Best Index): Males: $4-5$. Females: $5-6$.

• Washburn Index (Ischio-pubic): Males: $<95$. Females: $>95$.

• Ashley's Rule (Sternum): Length is $149\,\text{mm}$ in males and $<149\,\text{mm}$ in females.

• Hyrtl's Law (Sternum): In males, the body is longer than twice the length of the manubrium; in females, it is shorter than twice the length.

• Preauricular Sulcus: Rare in males; more frequent, broad, and deep in females (Tertiary sexual character).

AGE DETERMINATION: FETAL AND OSSIFICATION

• Rule of Hasse (Fetus < 5 Months): $\text{Month}^2 = \text{Length in cm}$.

  • 1 Month: $1\,\text{cm}$

  • 2 Months: $4\,\text{cm}$

  • 3 Months: $9\,\text{cm}$

  • 4 Months: $16\,\text{cm}$

  • 5 Months: $25\,\text{cm}$

• Modified Morrisons Rule (Fetus > 5 Months): $\text{Month} \times 5 = \text{Length in cm}$.

  • 6 Months: $30\,\text{cm}$

  • 7 Months: $35\,\text{cm}$

  • 8 Months: $40\,\text{cm}$

  • 9 Months: $45\,\text{cm}$

  • 10 Months: $50\,\text{cm}$

• Fetus Development Milestones:

  • 1 Month: Limb buds.

  • 2 Months: Webbing of hands/feet.

  • 3 Months: Nails appear.

  • 4 Months: Lanugo hair, sexual differentiation.

  • 5 Months: Scalp hair.

  • 6 Months: Eyebrows, eyelashes.

  • 7 Months: Testis at external ring, eyes open, pupillary membrane disappears.

  • 8 Months: Left testis in scrotum.

  • 9 Months: Right testis in scrotum.

OSSIFICATION CENTERS: APPEARANCE AND FUSION

• Appearance Times:

  • Clavicle (1st): $5-6$ weeks.

  • Calcaneum: $5$ months.

  • Talus and Sternum (pieces 2/3): $7$ months.

  • Capitate, Cuboid, Lower End of Femur: $36$ weeks.

  • Upper end of Tibia: Full term.

• Elbow Joint (Appearance):

  • Capitulum: $1$ year.

  • Radial head: $3-4$ years.

  • Inner epicondyle: $6$ years.

  • Trochlea: $8$ years.

  • Olecranon: $10$ years.

  • External epicondyle: $11-12$ years.

• Carpal Bone Fusion (12-Year Rule):

  • Scaphoid, Trapezium, Trapezoid, Lunate ($3$, $4$, $5$, $6$ years).

  • Pisiform (Last): $12$ years.

• Major Bone Fusion:

  • Acetabulum/Tri-radiate cartilage: $13-15$ years.

  • Iliac crest: $20$ years.

  • Inner end of clavicle: $21$ years.

  • Ischial tuberosity: $22$ years.

  • Mandible halves: $2$ years.

  • Hyoid greater cornu: $40-60$ years.

  • Pubic symphysis: Best for $3\text{rd} - 5\text{th}$ decade.

• Limb Fusion Ages: Shoulder, Wrist, Ankle ($16-18$ years). Knee ($18$ years). Female ossification center fuses $1-2$ years earlier than males.

SKULL SUTURES AND FONTANELLES

• Fontanelles:

  • Anterior (Bregma): Closes at $18-24$ months.

  • Posterior (Lambda): Closes at $2-3$ months.

  • Lateral Sphenoid: $2$ months.

  • Lateral Mastoid: $12-18$ months.

• Sutures:

  • Metopic: Closes at $9$ months.

  • Sagittal (Best for age): Fuses at $30-40$ years (posterior $1/3$), $40-50$ years (anterior $1/3$), and $50-60$ years (middle $1/3$).

  • Coronal: $40-50$ years (lower half), $50-60$ years (upper half).

  • Lambdoid: $50-60$ years (upper), $60-70$ years (lower).

  • Basiocciput with Basisphenoid: $18-21$ years.

  • Squamo-temporal: $>80$ years.

STERNUM FUSION PHASES

• Pieces $3-4$: $15$ years.

• Pieces $2-3$: $20$ years.

• Pieces $1-2$: $25$ years.

• Xiphoid to 4th piece: $40$ years.

• Manubrium to 1st piece: $50-60$ years.

DENTITION

• Count: Temporary ($20$), Permanent ($32$).

• Temporary Eruption Sequence: Incisor ($6-9\,m$), 1st Molar ($12\,m$), Canine ($18\,m$), 2nd Molar ($24\,m$).

• Permanent Eruption Sequence:

  • 6 years: Molar 1 (Mummy).

  • 7 years: Incisor 1 (Is).

  • 8 years: Incisor 2 (In).

  • 9 years: Pre-molar 1 (Pain).

  • 10 years: Pre-molar 2 (Papa).

  • 11 years: Canine (Can).

  • 12-14 years: Molar 2 (Make).

  • 17-25 years: Molar 3 (Medicine/Wisdom).

• Successional vs Superadded: Successional replacement of $20$ temporary teeth. Superadded includes the $12$ molars added extras.

• Age Estimation Methods:

  • Stack Formula: Uses dry weight/height of tooth for infants.

  • Boyde's Method: Uses incremental lines (striations) in enamel.

  • Gustafson Method: Best for $>25$ years using 6 criteria: secondary dentin, cementum apposition, root resorption, attrition, paradentosis, and transparency of root (best criterion).

STATURE ESTIMATION AND FINGERPRINTING

• Best bone for stature: Femur.

• Regression Formulae: Karl Pearson, Trotter and Glesser, Steele, and Bidmos.

• Multiplication Factors: Femur ($3.7$), Tibia/Fibula ($4.5$), Humerus ($5.3$), Ulna ($6.1$), Radius ($6.5$).

• Fingerprinting (Dactylography): Most reliable identification method. Papillary ridges appear at $12$ weeks of gestation and are complete by $24$ weeks. Not inherited; different in identical twins.

• Patterns:

  • Loop ($70\%$ - most common).

  • Whorl.

  • Arch.

  • Composite ($3\%$ - least common).

• Minutiae: Study of ridge characteristics is Ridgeoscopy. Study of pores is Poroscopy (discovered by Locard).

• Tattoo Marks: Depth is in the dermis. Infrared rays are used for old tattoos and UV rays for faded ones. Visualization can require lymph node biopsy.

THANATOLOGY: THE STUDY OF DEATH

• Definition: BNS Section 2, Sub-section 6 defines death.

• Bishop's Tripod of Life: Failure of Lungs (Respiration), Heart (Circulation), and Brain function.

• Types of Death:

  • Somatic/Clinical: Irreversible stoppage of the tripod.

  • Molecular/Cellular: Death of individual cells